Securing Nuclear Power and Reshaping the Global Energy Landscape

China's Nuclear Ambition: Securing Power and Reshaping the Global Energy Landscape

China is in the midst of a nuclear power revolution, embarking on an unprecedented expansion of its nuclear energy capacity. Driven by a burgeoning energy demand and a pressing need to combat air pollution from its heavy reliance on coal, China's nuclear program is not only transforming its domestic energy mix but also positioning it as a potential global leader in the field. This comprehensive note delves into the intricacies of China's nuclear ambitions, examining its rapid construction capabilities, strategies for securing vital raw materials, its ambitious goals for the future, and the broader geopolitical implications of its nuclear ascendancy.

China's energy consumption has skyrocketed since 2004, fueled by its rapid industrialization and economic growth. However, this growth has come at an environmental cost, with coal remaining a dominant energy source, contributing significantly to air pollution, particularly in densely populated regions like Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei. Recognizing the urgent need for cleaner energy alternatives, China has turned to nuclear power with remarkable determination. As the World Bank noted in a 2018 feature, "Helping China Fight Air Pollution," the country faces a significant challenge in balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability.

To address this challenge and meet its ever-increasing energy demands, China is rapidly scaling up its nuclear power capacity. By late April 2025, the country boasted 58 operational nuclear reactors and an additional 30 under construction, according to the World Nuclear Association. This makes China a global leader in terms of the sheer volume of nuclear construction activity.

One of the most striking aspects of China's nuclear program is its remarkable speed and cost-effectiveness in building new reactors. Experts attribute this to a confluence of factors. A strong, centralized government provides unwavering long-term planning and support, ensuring that nuclear projects receive the necessary resources and approvals without undue delay. As one energy policy analyst observed, "The centralized nature of the Chinese government allows for swift decision-making and consistent policy implementation, crucial for large-scale infrastructure projects like nuclear power plants."

Furthermore, China has cultivated a dedicated and skilled workforce specializing in nuclear power plant construction. Continuous investment in training and education ensures a steady pipeline of qualified engineers, technicians, and construction workers. The adoption of standardized reactor designs, such as the Hualong One (HPR1000) and CAP1000, has also been instrumental. Building multiple units based on these designs allows for economies of scale, streamlined construction processes, and faster learning curves. "Standardization is key to efficiency," notes a nuclear engineer. "By replicating successful designs, China can significantly reduce construction times and costs."

Efficient project management and execution capabilities, honed through experience and the adoption of modular construction techniques, further contribute to China's rapid build times. Coupled with a robust domestic nuclear supply chain, capable of manufacturing a significant portion of the required components, China minimizes reliance on foreign suppliers and potential delays. According to a report by Ignition News in 2024, "China's fleet-scale deployment of nuclear reactors is unmatched, allowing them to build reactors faster and cheaper than many other nations." Lower labor and material costs compared to Western countries also provide a significant economic advantage.

Streamlined regulatory processes, while maintaining safety as a priority, also contribute to the faster pace of development. "China has managed to create a regulatory framework that facilitates progress without compromising safety standards," comments a nuclear regulatory affairs specialist. Finally, China's proactive approach to learning and adapting international technologies, coupled with its own innovation leading to advanced designs like the Hualong One, has accelerated its progress in the nuclear sector. Cipher News highlighted in a recent analysis, "China has not only absorbed international nuclear technology but has also emerged as an innovator, developing its own advanced reactor designs."

To fuel this ambitious expansion, securing a stable supply of uranium, the primary raw material for nuclear fuel, is paramount. China employs a multi-faceted strategy:

• Domestic Uranium Production: While China possesses significant uranium resources, much of it is low-grade. The China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) is actively working to enhance domestic production through improved mining techniques, aiming to meet roughly one-third of its needs internally.
• Overseas Equity and Joint Ventures: China has strategically invested in uranium mining projects overseas, particularly in countries like Namibia (Rössing and Husab mines) and Kazakhstan (joint ventures with Kazatomprom). This aims to secure another third of its uranium supply through direct ownership and long-term agreements. "Securing access to resources at the source is a crucial element of China's energy security strategy," states a resource economist.
• Open Market Purchases: China also procures uranium through international spot markets and long-term contracts with various suppliers, diversifying its sources to mitigate supply risks. Historically, this has included purchases from countries like Australia and Canada.
• Strategic Reserves: While details are limited, it is highly probable that China maintains strategic uranium reserves to buffer against potential supply disruptions.

Comparing China's approach to other major nuclear powers reveals distinct strategies. The United States relies on a mix of domestic production and imports, primarily from Canada, Kazakhstan, and Australia. Russia boasts substantial domestic uranium resources and a vertically integrated fuel cycle. France, while having some domestic mining, also depends on imports, historically from Africa and other sources. "China's proactive pursuit of overseas equity in mines sets it apart, ensuring a more direct control over its uranium supply chain compared to some other nations," observes a global energy security expert.

Looking ahead, China has set an ambitious goal of reaching 200 Gigawatts (GW) of nuclear power capacity by 2035. This would represent a dramatic increase from its current capacity and position nuclear energy as a significant contributor to its overall electricity generation, potentially around 10%. This level of ambition dwarfs the current plans of many other nuclear-powered nations. While the US focuses on extending the lifespan of existing reactors and developing Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), and France considers a more moderate expansion to replace older plants, China's commitment to large-scale reactor construction is unparalleled. India also has significant nuclear expansion plans, but its pace is generally slower. "China's 2035 target is a clear statement of intent, signaling a fundamental shift in its energy strategy towards a low-carbon future," comments a nuclear energy policy analyst.

The security and quality of China's relationships with its major raw material suppliers, particularly Kazakhstan and Namibia, appear to be strong. These relationships are often underpinned by broader strategic partnerships and economic interdependence. China's significant investments in these countries contribute to their economic development, fostering a degree of mutual interest in maintaining stable supply chains. "China has been astute in building mutually beneficial relationships with key resource-rich nations," notes a geopolitical analyst. However, as with any international partnership, potential geopolitical shifts could introduce uncertainties.

The geopolitical implications of China's nuclear ambitions are far-reaching. Its drive for energy security and independence aims to reduce reliance on fossil fuel imports and enhance its strategic autonomy. China's growing dominance in nuclear power technology and its secure access to fuel resources could also translate into increased global influence in the energy sector, potentially positioning it as a future supplier of nuclear technology and fuel. "Energy security is increasingly intertwined with geopolitical influence, and China's nuclear program is a key element in this dynamic," states a scholar of international relations.

Furthermore, China's expanding nuclear program and its relationships with uranium-producing nations are subjects of international attention regarding nuclear non-proliferation. While China is a signatory to the NPT, its growing nuclear capabilities necessitate careful monitoring and adherence to international safeguards. "Transparency and adherence to international norms will be crucial as China's nuclear footprint expands globally," emphasizes a non-proliferation expert. China's Belt and Road Initiative could also play a role in securing resource corridors and fostering energy partnerships with uranium-rich nations, further intertwining its energy ambitions with its broader geopolitical strategy. Some analysts suggest that China's increasing energy independence through nuclear power could reduce its vulnerability to external pressures, potentially altering the balance of power in the global energy landscape. As one commentator put it, "Energy independence is the bedrock of strategic autonomy in the 21st century."

Generation IV Reactors and China's Capabilities:

Adding another layer to China's nuclear ambition is its active pursuit and deployment of Generation IV (Gen IV) reactor technologies. These advanced designs promise enhanced safety, improved sustainability, higher efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. China is at the forefront of this innovation, notably with the commercial operation of the Huaneng Shandong Shidao Bay Nuclear Power Plant, featuring a High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor-Pebble-bed Module (HTR-PM). "The successful operation of the HTR-PM marks a significant milestone, demonstrating China's leadership in next-generation nuclear technology," comments a nuclear technology expert. China is also actively developing Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs), with plans for a thorium-based MSR, showcasing its commitment to exploring advanced fuel cycles and reactor designs.

The development and deployment of Gen IV reactors significantly augment China's nuclear capabilities by positioning it as a technological leader, enhancing safety and efficiency, fostering fuel cycle innovation, boosting its global influence and export potential, securing long-term energy security, and establishing a vibrant domestic research and development hub. "China's investment in Gen IV reactors is not just about increasing capacity; it's about leapfrogging to the cutting edge of nuclear technology," asserts an energy innovation analyst.

Conclusions and Takeaways:

China's nuclear power program represents a monumental undertaking with profound domestic and global implications. Its remarkable speed and cost-effectiveness in building reactors, driven by strong governmental support, standardized designs, and efficient execution, have allowed it to rapidly expand its nuclear capacity. Its comprehensive strategy for securing raw materials, encompassing domestic production, overseas investments, and open market purchases, underscores its commitment to long-term energy security. The ambitious goal of reaching 200 GW of nuclear capacity by 2035 signifies a major shift in China's energy mix and sets it apart from the more moderate nuclear expansion plans of other major nations.

The geopolitical ramifications of China's nuclear ascendancy are significant. Its growing energy independence, potential leadership in nuclear technology, and evolving relationships with resource-rich nations are reshaping the global energy landscape and influencing international power dynamics. While its progress offers a pathway towards cleaner energy and reduced carbon emissions, it also necessitates continued international attention regarding nuclear safety and non-proliferation.

In conclusion, China's nuclear ambition is a multifaceted endeavor characterized by rapid growth, strategic resource acquisition, technological innovation, and significant geopolitical implications. Its success in deploying nuclear power at an unprecedented scale could provide valuable lessons for other nations seeking to transition to cleaner energy sources, while its growing influence in the nuclear sector warrants careful observation from the international community. As one final thought from an energy strategist, "China's nuclear program is not just about generating electricity; it's about projecting power and securing its future in a rapidly changing world."

References

• World Bank. (2018, June 11). Helping China Fight Air Pollution. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/06/11/helping-china-fight-air-pollution
• World Nuclear Association. China - Reactor Database. https://world-nuclear.org/nuclear-reactor-database/summary/China
• Ignition News. (2024). China Wants 10 New Reactors—for $27B. https://ignition-news.com/china-wants-10-new-reactors-for-27b/
• Cipher News. China on track to dominate nuclear energy. https://www.ciphernews.com/articles/china-on-track-to-dominate-nuclear-energy/
• Chinadaily.com.cn. (2025, April 28). China tops global ranking of overall nuclear power capacity, report says. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202504/28/WS680f9880a310a04af22bcace.html
• World Nuclear News. (2024, August 29). Ten new reactors approved in China. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/ten-new-reactors-approved-in-china
• Energy policy of China - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China
• Huaneng Group. (2023, December 6). Shidaowan Nuclear Power Plant's First Reactor Enters Commercial Operation. https://www.google.com/search?q=https://www.chng.com.cn/en/xwzx/gsxw/202312/t20231206_154747.html

Appendix 1: Comparative Analysis of Nuclear Energy Programs

This appendix provides a comparative overview of the nuclear energy programs of China, the USA, France, Russia, India, Japan, South Korea, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Germany over the last 25 years (2000-2025) and projections for the next 10 years (2025-2035). Data is compiled from the World Nuclear Association, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and other publicly available sources.

Analysis of Nuclear Energy Programs (2000-2035)

China: China's nuclear program has undergone the most dramatic transformation in the last 25 years. Starting with a modest capacity in 2000, it has experienced exponential growth, becoming a global leader in both operational capacity and reactors under construction. This trend is projected to continue aggressively into the next decade, with a target of 200 GWe by 2035. China's focus is clearly on rapid expansion to meet energy demands and reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

United States: The US, which had the largest nuclear capacity in 2000, has seen relatively stagnant growth over the past 25 years. While no new large-scale reactors were commissioned for a long period, the focus has been on maintaining the existing fleet and extending their operational lifespans. The number of reactors under construction remains modest. The projection for the next decade suggests a potential slight increase, driven by new projects and the development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), but it will likely be outpaced significantly by China.

France: France, with its historically high reliance on nuclear power, has seen a slight increase in capacity since 2000. However, it has faced challenges with the construction of new large-scale reactors, experiencing delays and cost overruns. The number of reactors under construction is relatively low. The next decade's projections suggest a focus on maintaining its existing fleet and potentially replacing older reactors, with no dramatic expansion anticipated.

Russia: Russia has maintained a relatively stable nuclear capacity over the last 25 years, with some new additions offsetting retirements. It has also been active in building reactors domestically and internationally. The number of reactors under construction is significant. The projection for the next decade indicates continued growth, driven by both domestic needs and export projects. Russia remains a key player in the global nuclear market.

India: India's nuclear program has shown steady growth over the past 25 years, albeit at a slower pace than China's. It has a moderate number of reactors under construction, reflecting its ambition to increase the share of nuclear power in its energy mix. The projection for the next decade suggests continued growth, driven by indigenous reactor designs and international collaborations, but it is unlikely to reach the scale of China's expansion.

Japan: Japan's nuclear program was significantly impacted by the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011. While it had a substantial capacity in 2000, post-accident, many reactors were shut down, leading to a decrease in operational capacity by 2025. The number of reactors under construction is minimal, reflecting a cautious approach to restarting existing plants. The projection for the next decade remains uncertain, heavily dependent on public acceptance and the restart of idled reactors.

South Korea: South Korea has steadily increased its nuclear capacity since 2000 and has been an efficient builder of nuclear reactors. It also has reactors under construction. The projection for the next decade suggests continued, albeit potentially more moderate, growth, with a focus on both domestic energy needs and potential export opportunities.

Canada: Canada's nuclear program, primarily using CANDU reactors, has seen a modest increase in capacity since 2000, mainly through upgrades and life extensions of existing plants. The number of new reactors under construction is relatively low. The projection for the next decade suggests a continuation of this trend, with a focus on maintaining and potentially selectively expanding its existing fleet and exploring SMR technology.

United Kingdom: The UK's nuclear capacity has declined since 2000 due to the retirement of older plants. While there are new reactors under construction, the pace of replacement has been slow. The projection for the next decade indicates a potential increase in capacity as new projects come online, but it will likely remain below its peak capacity from earlier decades.

Germany: Germany made a political decision to phase out nuclear power following the Fukushima accident. Its nuclear capacity has steadily declined since 2000, with the last reactors being shut down in 2023. The projection for the next decade shows zero nuclear capacity, marking a complete departure from nuclear energy.

Key Observations:

• China's Unprecedented Growth: China stands out for its aggressive and rapid expansion of nuclear power, a trend projected to continueDominating the next decade.
• Stagnation or Slow Growth in Established Nuclear Nations: Many countries with mature nuclear programs (USA, France) have seen limited growth or even decline in capacity over the last 25 years, often due to aging infrastructure, public opposition, and challenges in building new large-scale reactors.
• Post-Fukushima Impact: Japan and Germany's nuclear programs were significantly impacted by the Fukushima accident, leading to shutdowns and policy shifts.
• Emerging Growth in Asia: India and South Korea show steady growth in their nuclear programs, reflecting their increasing energy demands and commitment to nuclear power.
• Varied Future Trajectories: The next decade will likely see a divergence in nuclear strategies, with China leading in rapid expansion, Russia continuing a steady growth path, and other nations focusing on maintaining, selectively expanding, or phasing out nuclear power.

This comparative analysis highlights the dynamic nature of global nuclear energy programs, with China's ambitious expansionary path contrasting sharply with the more cautious or declining trends in some other leading nuclear nations. The next decade will be crucial in shaping the future global nuclear landscape, with China poised to become a dominant force.

Make another appendix with detailed notes on the USA, Russia, and France for the period 2000 to 2035. Provide details. Expand on their raw material sources and supply chains. Total in about 1200 words

Appendix 2: Detailed Analysis of Nuclear Energy Programs: USA, Russia, and France (2000-2035)

This appendix provides a detailed analysis of the nuclear energy programs of the United States, Russia, and France, covering the period from 2000 to 2035. It examines their evolution, current status, future projections, and, importantly, their strategies for securing raw materials and managing their nuclear fuel supply chains.

United States

2000-2025: A Period of Stagnation and Reassessment

At the beginning of the 21st century, the United States possessed the world's largest nuclear power capacity. However, the period from 2000 to 2025 was characterized by relative stagnation. While the existing fleet of reactors continued to operate, no new large-scale nuclear power plants were commissioned for a considerable period. This was due to a combination of factors, including:

• High Construction Costs: Nuclear power projects in the US have historically faced high capital costs and lengthy construction timelines, making them less competitive compared to other energy sources, particularly natural gas.
• Regulatory Hurdles: The complex and time-consuming regulatory approval process for new nuclear plants added to the financial risks and discouraged investment.
• Public Perception: Public concerns about nuclear safety and waste disposal, while not as strong as in some other countries, contributed to a cautious approach towards new nuclear construction.
• Focus on Existing Fleet: The primary focus was on extending the operational lifespans of existing reactors through license renewals and upgrades. This involved significant investments in safety enhancements and efficiency improvements.

Despite the lack of new builds, the US nuclear industry remained a significant contributor to the nation's electricity supply, providing a large share of its carbon-free power. The development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) began to gain traction towards the end of this period, seen as a potential way to overcome some of the challenges associated with large-scale reactors.

2025-2035: A Potential Revival with SMRs and Advanced Technologies

The next decade holds the potential for a limited revival of the US nuclear industry. While a massive expansion like China's is not anticipated, several factors point towards a renewed interest in nuclear power:

• Climate Change Concerns: The increasing urgency to decarbonize the energy sector is driving renewed interest in nuclear power as a reliable, low-carbon energy source.
• Government Support: The US government has expressed support for nuclear energy through various incentives, including tax credits and funding for research and development.
• SMR Development: The development and potential deployment of SMRs are seen as a key opportunity to revitalize the industry. SMRs offer advantages such as lower capital costs, shorter construction times, and enhanced safety features.
• Advanced Reactor Technologies: Research and development into advanced reactor designs, including fast reactors and molten salt reactors, are receiving increased attention, with the potential to offer improved safety, efficiency, and waste management.

However, the pace of any revival will depend on overcoming challenges related to cost competitiveness, regulatory approvals, and public acceptance. The US is projected to add some nuclear capacity in this period, but it is unlikely to match the scale of growth seen in countries like China and India.

Raw Material Sources and Supply Chains:

The United States relies on a combination of domestic production and imports to secure its uranium supply.

• Domestic Production: The US has some domestic uranium mining, primarily in Western states. However, domestic production has declined in recent decades due to economic factors.
• Imports: The US imports a significant portion of its uranium needs, primarily from Canada, Kazakhstan, and Australia. These are considered reliable suppliers.
• Enrichment: The US has a domestic uranium enrichment capacity, which is crucial for producing fuel for its reactors.
• Fuel Fabrication: The US also has a well-established fuel fabrication industry.

The US supply chain is generally considered secure, with diversified sources and domestic capabilities in key areas like enrichment and fuel fabrication. However, maintaining a robust domestic uranium mining industry is seen as important for long-term energy security.

Russia

2000-2025: Maintaining a Strong Position and Expanding Internationally

Russia has maintained a strong and consistent nuclear energy program throughout the period from 2000 to 2025. Key characteristics include:

• Vertically Integrated Industry: Russia possesses a fully integrated nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining to fuel fabrication and waste management. This provides a high degree of self-sufficiency and control over its supply chain.
• Domestic Construction: Russia has continued to build new nuclear power plants domestically, replacing older units and increasing its overall capacity.
• International Exports: Russia has been a major exporter of nuclear technology and services, building reactors in numerous countries around the world. Rosatom, the state-owned nuclear corporation, has been highly successful in securing international contracts.
• Advanced Reactor Designs: Russia has continued to develop and deploy advanced reactor designs, including VVER-type reactors and fast reactors.

Russia's nuclear industry has been a significant contributor to its domestic energy supply and a key source of export revenue.

2025-2035: Continued Growth and Global Leadership

Russia is projected to continue its strong nuclear program in the next decade:

• Domestic Expansion: Russia plans to continue building new reactors domestically to meet its energy needs and replace aging plants.
• International Dominance: Rosatom is expected to remain a dominant player in the global nuclear market, securing contracts to build and operate reactors in numerous countries.
• Advanced Technologies: Russia will likely continue to develop and deploy advanced reactor technologies, including fast reactors, which offer the potential for more efficient fuel utilization and waste reduction.
• Fuel Cycle Services: Russia will continue to be a major provider of nuclear fuel cycle services, including uranium enrichment and fuel fabrication, to international customers.

Russia's nuclear program is characterized by its self-sufficiency, its strong export orientation, and its commitment to advanced technologies.

Raw Material Sources and Supply Chains:

Russia has abundant domestic uranium resources and a highly secure supply chain:

• Domestic Production: Russia has significant uranium reserves and a well-established uranium mining industry.
• Enrichment: Russia has a large uranium enrichment capacity, sufficient to meet its domestic needs and supply its export customers.
• Fuel Fabrication: Russia has a robust fuel fabrication industry, capable of producing fuel for a wide range of reactor types.
• Integrated Supply Chain: The vertically integrated nature of Russia's nuclear industry ensures a high degree of control and security over its entire fuel cycle.

Russia is not heavily reliant on imports for its nuclear fuel, giving it a strategic advantage in terms of energy security.

France

2000-2025: Maintaining a High Reliance on Nuclear Power

France has historically been highly reliant on nuclear power, which provides a large majority of its electricity. Key features of its program during this period include:

• High Nuclear Share: France maintained a very high share of nuclear power in its electricity mix, one of the highest in the world.
• Aging Fleet: Many of France's nuclear reactors are aging, requiring significant investments in maintenance and upgrades.
• Challenges with New Builds: France has faced challenges in building new large-scale reactors, with projects like Flamanville 3 experiencing significant delays and cost overruns.
• Focus on Safety: France has a strong emphasis on nuclear safety and has implemented rigorous safety standards.

France's nuclear industry has been a cornerstone of its energy policy, providing a reliable and low-carbon source of electricity. However, the aging fleet and challenges with new builds have raised questions about the long-term sustainability of its nuclear program.

2025-2035: A Period of Transition and Potential Reinvestment

The next decade will be crucial for the future of France's nuclear program:

• Maintaining Existing Fleet: A key priority will be to maintain the safety and reliability of its existing fleet of reactors, which will require significant investments.
• Replacing Aging Reactors: Decisions will need to be made about replacing aging reactors. The construction of new reactors is under consideration, but cost and public acceptance remain significant challenges.
• Potential for New Builds: Depending on government policy and economic factors, France may decide to build new reactors to maintain its high reliance on nuclear power. SMRs could also be considered.
• European Energy Policy: France's nuclear policy will be influenced by broader European energy policy decisions.

The future of France's nuclear program is somewhat uncertain, depending on its ability to overcome the challenges of aging infrastructure and the high costs of new construction.

Raw Material Sources and Supply Chains:

France relies on a mix of domestic sources and imports for its uranium supply:

• Limited Domestic Production: France has some limited domestic uranium resources, but it is not a major producer.
• Historical Reliance on Africa: Historically, France relied heavily on uranium imports from African countries, particularly Niger.
• Diversification of Supply: France has sought to diversify its uranium supply sources in recent years, including imports from countries like Canada and Australia.
• Enrichment and Fuel Fabrication: France has a well-established domestic uranium enrichment and fuel fabrication industry.

France's supply chain is generally secure, but its historical reliance on specific regions has made it vulnerable to geopolitical risks. Diversification of supply sources is a key priority.

Comparative Summary: USA, Russia, and France (2000-2035)

• Growth Trajectory: The USA experienced relative stagnation in nuclear capacity from 2000-2025 and projects modest growth driven by SMRs and advanced technologies in the next decade. Russia has shown consistent growth and is projected to continue expanding both domestically and internationally. France maintained a high reliance on nuclear power but faces challenges with aging infrastructure and new builds, leading to a more uncertain future trajectory focused on maintenance and potential replacement.
• Raw Material Security: The USA relies on a mix of domestic production and imports (Canada, Kazakhstan, Australia), with a secure but potentially vulnerable domestic mining sector. Russia boasts a highly secure, vertically integrated domestic fuel cycle, ensuring self-sufficiency. France depends on a mix of limited domestic production and diversified imports (historically Africa, now including Canada and Australia), with a strong domestic enrichment and fabrication capacity.
• Technological Focus: The USA is increasingly focusing on SMRs and advanced reactor technologies for future growth. Russia continues to develop and deploy advanced VVER reactors and is a leader in fast reactor technology. France is primarily focused on maintaining its existing PWR fleet and cautiously considering new large-scale reactors and potentially SMRs.
• Global Role: The USA was historically a dominant force but its influence has relatively waned in terms of new builds. Russia is a major global exporter of nuclear technology and fuel cycle services. France, while a significant nuclear power, has a more regionally focused role within Europe.
• Key Challenges: The USA faces challenges in cost competitiveness and regulatory hurdles for new builds. Russia's primary challenges are geopolitical risks associated with its international projects. France grapples with the costs and timelines of new large-scale projects and the need to replace its aging fleet.