Feasibility of Indus River Diversion - In short, it is impossible
Himalayan River Systems: An Analysis of River Courses and the Feasibility of Indus River Diversion
"Diverting the Indus to the Kashmir Valley is highly infeasible. The significant elevation difference and the Pir Panjal range pose major geographical barriers. The project would require immense engineering efforts and astronomical costs. Furthermore, it would likely cause catastrophic flooding and carries severe geopolitical risks"
Executive Summary
The
Himalayan region is the source of major river systems in South Asia, including
the Indus and Jhelum. The Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zanskar ranges significantly
influence the courses of the Zanskar, Indus, and Shyok rivers, acting as both
barriers and channels. The Indus River originates in Tibet and flows northwest
through Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan, while the Shyok River originates in the
Karakoram and joins the Indus. The Zanskar River originates in the Zanskar
Range and also flows into the Indus. The Jhelum River originates in the Kashmir
Valley and flows northwest into Pakistan, eventually joining the Chenab.
The
feasibility of diverting the Indus River towards the Kashmir Valley is highly
questionable due to substantial elevation differences and the presence of major
mountain ranges like the Ladakh and Zanskar. Such a project would require
massive dams, extensive tunneling, and significant pumping infrastructure,
leading to astronomical costs likely in the trillions of dollars. Furthermore,
diverting the Indus into the Kashmir Valley would overwhelm the Jhelum River
system, causing catastrophic flooding. Diverting the Jhelum River further south
to mitigate this is also deemed infeasible due to topographical barriers and
the scale of engineering required. Additionally, any large-scale diversion of
the Indus River would have significant geopolitical implications, potentially
violating the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan.
1.
Introduction: The Interplay of Himalayan Ranges and River Systems
The
Himalayan region, often referred to as the "Water Tower of Asia,"
plays a pivotal role in the hydrology of the South Asian subcontinent. The
Indus River Basin, in particular, is critically dependent on the meltwater from
glaciers located within the high mountain ranges and the precipitation brought
by the Asian monsoon. The Indus River's flow experiences substantial seasonal
fluctuations, typically peaking between mid-July and mid-August due to the
combined effects of snowmelt and monsoon rains, and reaching its lowest levels
from December to February. This annual cycle sustains vast irrigation systems,
supporting the agriculture and livelihoods of millions in the downstream
plains. However, this vital water source faces increasing threats from climate
change, pollution, and urbanization, which have already begun to alter its flow
patterns and impact the surrounding ecosystems. The geopolitical context
further complicates water management, as the Indus River and its tributaries
traverse through India and Pakistan, raising concerns about water rights and
resource management.
Within this complex hydrological landscape, the Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zanskar mountain ranges stand as significant orographic features that exert a profound influence on the flow and direction of the Zanskar, Indus, and Shyok rivers. The Karakoram Range, with its average elevation exceeding 6,000 meters and spanning approximately 500 km, is a major source of glacial meltwater for the upper Indus River and the Shyok River. The Ladakh Range, characterized by its granite composition, forms the northern boundary of the Indus Valley within Ladakh, effectively channeling the river's course. To the south of Ladakh lies the Zanskar Range, which consists of sedimentary layers and separates Zanskar from Ladakh, significantly influencing the Zanskar River's flow. This report aims to analyze the specific ways in which these mountain ranges impact the respective rivers, trace the movement of these rivers from their origins, and critically assess the feasibility of a hypothetical diversion of the Indus River towards the Kashmir Valley, along with the potential consequences for the Jhelum River.
The Indus
River Basin is under considerable strain due to its heavy reliance on glacial
melt, making any large-scale alteration to its natural flow a matter of serious
concern for regional water security and stability. Glacial melt contributes
over one-third of the Indus River's discharge, and the northern subbasins in
the Karakoram Range are the largest contributors of this meltwater. This
dependence, coupled with the observed "Karakoram anomaly" where
glaciers are responding heterogeneously to climate change, underscores the
delicate balance of the system. Furthermore, the Indus River system is deeply
intertwined with the geopolitical tensions between India and Pakistan,
particularly concerning the Kashmir region. Pakistan has long-standing fears
that India might divert water from the upper reaches of the Indus, a concern
that has even led to past conflicts. Therefore, any proposal to divert a
significant portion of the Indus River must be evaluated not only from an
engineering and hydrological perspective but also within this sensitive
political context.
2. The
Influence of Mountain Ranges on River Courses
2.1.
Karakoram Range:
The
Karakoram Range plays a crucial role in the hydrology of the upper Indus River
Basin, serving as a primary source of glacial meltwater. Fed by glaciers within
the Himalaya and Karakoram mountain ranges, the Indus River experiences
significant annual fluctuations in its flow. The glacial meltwaters originating
from the Karakoram are so vital that they are often referred to as the
"mother of the Indus". Indeed, over 80% of the upper Indus River's
flow is derived from less than 20% of its area, primarily from the heavily
snow-covered and glacierized basins above 3500 meters in elevation, largely
situated along the axis of the Greater Karakoram range. The northern subbasins
of the Upper Indus, which are located within the Karakoram Range, contribute a
larger volume of glacier meltwater than all other basins combined. After
originating in Tibet, the Indus River flows northwest through Ladakh and then
Pakistani-administered Gilgit-Baltistan, situated just south of the Karakoram
Range. This proximity indicates a direct influence of the Karakoram on the
river's initial course as it descends from its source.
The
Karakoram Range is also the source of the Shyok River, a significant right-bank
tributary of the Indus. The Shyok River originates from the Rimo Glacier, which
is located in the Karakoram Range. As the Shyok flows generally northwestward
through the range, it is fed by meltwater from numerous glaciers. Notably, the
Chong Kumdan Glacier, also within the Karakoram Range, has been known to
periodically dam the Shyok River, leading to serious floods in the nearby
areas. Historical accounts from 1928 describe instances where the Shyok
glaciers advanced rapidly into the Shyok gorge, sometimes completely
obstructing the river's flow and forming a temporary lake.
The response
of the Karakoram glaciers to climate change presents a complex picture. Unlike
the widespread glacial retreat observed in other parts of the Himalayas, some
areas within the Karakoram Range exhibit glacier stability or even growth, a
phenomenon known as the "Karakoram anomaly". This unusual behavior is
attributed to the unique climate dynamics of the region, which is influenced by
the Indian monsoon, air currents from the Arabian Peninsula, and localized
weather patterns created by the high mountains themselves. This heterogeneous
response complicates predictions about the future availability of meltwater
from the Karakoram Range for the Indus River system.
2.2.
Ladakh Range:
The Ladakh
Range plays a crucial role in shaping the course of the Indus River as it flows
through the Ladakh region of India. Within Ladakh, the Ladakh Range forms the
northern boundary of the Indus Valley. When the Indus River enters
Indian-controlled Ladakh at Demchok, it flows along the base of the northern
flank of these granite mountains. In Central Ladakh, the Indus Valley appears
as a wide basin situated between the Ladakh Range to the north and the Stok
Range to the south. After entering India, the Indus River flows between the
Karakoram and Ladakh ranges. This confinement by the two major mountain ranges
significantly influences the river's trajectory as it moves northwestward
through the region. Near Dungti, the Indus takes a sharp southwest turn and
cuts through the Ladakh range before resuming a northwestern course towards the
Leh region, continuing to flow between the Ladakh and Zanskar ranges.
The Shyok
River, originating in the Karakoram Range, also flows through the Northern
Ladakh region. It marks the southeastern fringe of the Karakoram ranges by
forming a V-shaped bend around it, in close proximity to the Ladakh Range. The
Nubra River, a significant tributary of the Shyok, originates from the Nubra
Glacier and meanders southeastward to join the Shyok River downstream of Shyok
Valley, at the base of the Ladakh Range. The presence of the Ladakh Range at
this confluence point further underscores its geographical influence on the
river system.
The Ladakh
Range's role as the northern boundary of the Indus Valley within Ladakh is a
key factor in understanding the river's path through this high-altitude region.
This geographical constraint channels the Indus River, contributing to the
formation of the Indus Valley and influencing the location of settlements and
agricultural practices along its banks. The river's course between the Ladakh
and Karakoram ranges highlights the complex interplay of tectonic forces and
erosion in shaping the Himalayan landscape and the flow of its rivers.
2.3.
Zanskar Range:
The Zanskar
Range, located to the northeast of the Zanskar region, exerts a considerable
influence on the course of the Zanskar River. High mountain ridges, including
the Zanskar Range, flank both sides of the Doda and Lungnak valleys, the two
main branches that converge to form the Zanskar River. These valleys generally
run from north-west to south-east, and the Zanskar Range defines the northern
extent of the Zanskar River's middle and upper course, directing its flow
towards the north-east. The Zanskar River is formed by the union of the Doda
River and the Lungnak River in Zanskar's central valley. After this confluence,
the Zanskar River takes a north-eastern course until it eventually joins the
Indus River in Ladakh.
The Zanskar
Range acts as a significant geographical barrier, not only shaping the river's
direction but also contributing to the isolation of the Zanskar region. The
only outlet for the entire Zanskar hydrographic system is the Zanskar River
itself, which cuts a deep and narrow gorge, known as the Zanskar Gorge, through
the Zanskar Range. This gorge demonstrates the powerful erosive impact of the
river on the mountain range over time and explains why access to Zanskar is
difficult from all sides. Communication with neighboring Himalayan areas is
primarily maintained across high mountain passes or along the Zanskar River
when it is frozen in winter. The presence of the Zanskar Range thus plays a
critical role in defining both the hydrological and geographical
characteristics of the Zanskar region.
3.
Tracing the Rivers from Their Origins
3.1.
Zanskar River:
The Zanskar
River originates northeast of the Great Himalayan range and drains both the
Himalayas and the Zanskar Range within the region of Zanskar. In its upper
reaches, the Zanskar River is formed by two main branches. The first of these,
the Doda River, has its source near the Penzi-la mountain pass, situated at an
elevation of 4,400 meters. From its source, the Doda River flows
south-eastwards along the main Zanskar valley, leading towards Padum, the
capital of Zanskar. The second main branch is formed by two significant
tributaries: the Kargyag River (also known as the Kurgiakh River), which
originates near the Shingo La pass at an elevation of 5,091 meters, and the
Tsarap River, with its source near the Baralacha-La pass. These two rivers
unite below the village of Purne to form the Lungnak River (also known as the
Lingti or Tsarap River). The Lungnak River then flows north-westwards along a
narrow gorge towards Zanskar's central valley (known locally as gzhung khor),
where it joins with the Doda River to form the main Zanskar River. From this
confluence, the Zanskar River takes a north-eastern course through the dramatic
Zanskar Gorge until it finally joins the Indus River near Nimo in Ladakh. The
confluence of the Zanskar and Indus rivers is a significant point, often marked
by a distinct color difference between the two rivers, with the Zanskar
sometimes appearing green and the Indus blue.
3.2.
Indus River:
The Indus
River originates in the Western Tibet region of China, in mountain springs
northeast of Mount Kailash. While the traditional source is often cited as the
Sênggê Kanbab or "Lion's Mouth" near Mount Kailash, a 2011
remeasurement suggested a small lake northeast of Mount Kailash as the source.
Another reckoning begins the river further upstream at the confluence of the
Sênggê Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers, which drain the Nganglong Kangri and
Gangdise Shan mountain ranges. From its source, the Indus River flows northwest
through the disputed Kashmir region, first traversing Indian-administered
Ladakh. In Ladakh, the river flows between the Karakoram and Ladakh ranges and
is joined by its left-bank tributary, the Zanskar River, near Leh, and its right-bank
tributary, the Shyok River, further downstream. Continuing northwestward, the
Indus then flows through Pakistani-administered Gilgit-Baltistan. After passing
the Nanga Parbat massif, the Indus bends sharply to the left (south) and
descends into the Punjab plains at Kalabagh, Pakistan. Along its course, the
Indus passes through gigantic gorges near Nanga Parbat, reaching depths of
4,500–5,200 meters. Finally, the Indus flows southward through the plains of
Punjab and Sindh, eventually draining into the Arabian Sea near the port city
of Karachi.
3.3.
Shyok River:
The Shyok
River originates at the Rimo Glacier, one of the tongues of the Siachen
Glacier, in the Karakoram Range. Its alignment is quite unusual; originating
from the Rimo Glacier, it initially flows in a southeasterly direction. Upon
joining the Pangong Range, the Shyok River takes a sharp northwestern turn,
flowing parallel to its previous path. The Shyok Valley widens at the
confluence with the Nubra River, which originates from the Siachen Glacier,
near Diskit. Before Diskit, the Nubra River also exhibits a similar behavior,
flowing southeastward before taking a northwest turn upon meeting the Shyok.
After its confluence with the Nubra, the Shyok River suddenly turns into a
narrow gorge near Yagulung and continues through Bogdang, Turtuk, and Tyakshi before
crossing into Baltistan. The valley widens again near its junction with the
Saltoro River at Ghursay. Finally, the Shyok River joins the Indus River at
Keris, which is located east of the town of Skardu in Pakistan-controlled
Gilgit-Baltistan. The total length of the Shyok River is approximately 550 km.
3.4.
Jhelum River:
The Jhelum
River originates from a deep spring at Vernag, located in western Jammu and
Kashmir. This spring is situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal range in the
southeastern part of the Kashmir Valley. From its source, the Jhelum River
meanders northwestward through the Vale of Kashmir. It flows through
significant towns such as Anantnag and Srinagar, where it passes through the
Dal Lake. The river then flows into Wular Lake at Srinagar, which plays a role
in controlling its flow. Emerging from Wular Lake, the Jhelum flows westward
and crosses the Pir Panjal range through a deep, narrow gorge below Baramulla.
At Muzaffarabad, the administrative center of Azad Kashmir, the Jhelum receives
the Kishanganga River (also known as the Neelum River) and then bends
southward. It then forms part of the border between Azad Kashmir to the east
and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan to the west for approximately 170
km. The river continues to flow southward into Punjab province in Pakistan,
where it emerges onto the Potwar Plateau near Mirpur. Finally, the Jhelum turns
southwestward along the Salt Range to Khushab and then bends south again to
join the Chenab River near Trimmu. The total length of the Jhelum River is
about 725 kilometers.
4.
Feasibility of Diverting the Indus River to the Kashmir Valley
4.1.
Geographical and Topographical Challenges:
Diverting
the Indus River towards the Kashmir Valley presents significant geographical
and topographical challenges. The Indus River originates at a high elevation in
Tibet, approximately 5,500 meters near Lake Mapam. As it flows through Ladakh,
its elevation remains considerably high; Leh, a major settlement along its
bank, is situated at an elevation of 3,520 meters. Even the lowest elevation of
the Indus within Ladakh is around 2,550 meters. In contrast, the Kashmir Valley
has an average elevation of 1,850 meters. This substantial elevation
difference, ranging from approximately 700 to over 3,600 meters, between the
Indus River's course and the Kashmir Valley would require significant
engineering efforts to move water against gravity, especially for a large-scale
diversion.
Furthermore,
the Kashmir Valley is bounded on the southwest by the formidable Pir Panjal
Range, which has an average elevation of 3,000 meters, with peaks rising even
higher. The Indus River, after flowing through Ladakh, enters
Pakistani-administered Gilgit-Baltistan. In this region, its course is
characterized by deep gorges, reaching depths of 4,500–5,200 meters near the
Nanga Parbat massif. Diverting the Indus from such a deeply incised valley
towards the Kashmir Valley would necessitate traversing extremely rugged
Himalayan terrain and potentially crossing the high Pir Panjal range. This
would involve overcoming significant topographical hurdles, making a direct
diversion geographically challenging.
4.2.
Engineering Requirements:
Undertaking
a project to divert the Indus River towards the Kashmir Valley would demand an
immense engineering effort. Firstly, large dams would likely be required on the
Indus River in the Ladakh or Gilgit-Baltistan region to store and regulate the
water flow before any diversion. The scale of such dams can be gauged by
projects like the Three Gorges Dam in China, which cost over $30 billion.
Secondly, an extensive network of long tunnels, potentially spanning tens or
even hundreds of kilometers, would be necessary to traverse the mountainous
terrain and the Pir Panjal range that separates the Indus River's current path
from the Kashmir Valley. Tunnel construction in the Himalayas is known to be
costly and complex, with projects like the China-Nepal Railway tunnel estimated
at around $46 million per kilometer , and the Silkyara Tunnel in India costing
over $850 crore for just 4.5 kilometers. Depending on the chosen route and the
geological conditions, the total length of tunnels required for the Indus diversion
could lead to exorbitant costs.
Furthermore,
given the elevation difference, pumping stations might be necessary at various
points along the diversion route to lift the water to the required elevations,
adding to the complexity and significantly increasing the energy demands of the
project. Large-scale water diversion projects often involve substantial energy
costs for pumping, as seen in the proposed North American Water and Power
Alliance. The Himalayan region is also seismically active , and this factor
would need to be carefully considered during the design and construction of all
infrastructure, including dams and tunnels, to ensure their stability and
safety against earthquakes.
4.3.
Preliminary Cost Assessment:
The cost of
such a monumental project to divert the Indus River towards the Kashmir Valley
would likely be astronomical. Constructing mega dams in the Himalayas involves
investments ranging from billions to well over a hundred billion US dollars, as
evidenced by projects like the Three Gorges Dam ($31.7 billion) and the
proposed Medog Dam ($137 billion). The extensive tunneling required would also
contribute significantly to the overall cost, with tunnel construction in the
Himalayas potentially costing tens to hundreds of millions of dollars per
kilometer. For instance, the cost of the China-Nepal Railway construction
averages around $46 million per kilometer. If the diversion required hundreds
of kilometers of tunneling, the expense would be immense.
In addition
to construction costs, land acquisition in the sensitive Himalayan region would
be substantial and could face significant social and environmental opposition.
Finding suitable locations for large reservoirs in the densely populated
Himalayan region is already a challenge. Moreover, the long-term operational
and maintenance costs for such a large-scale water diversion project, including
energy for pumping and upkeep of the infrastructure, would be considerable.
Given these factors, the preliminary cost assessment suggests that diverting
the Indus River to the Kashmir Valley would likely be a financially prohibitive
undertaking, potentially exceeding hundreds of billions of US dollars.
5. Impact
on the Jhelum River and the Necessity of Further Diversion
5.1.
Potential for Flooding in the Kashmir Valley:
The Kashmir
Valley is naturally prone to flooding, primarily due to the Jhelum River's
limited carrying capacity, especially during periods of heavy rainfall and
snowmelt. The devastating floods of 2014, caused by the Jhelum overflowing its
banks, serve as a stark reminder of this vulnerability. The average annual flow
of the Indus River at its delta is around 5,500 cubic meters per second. Even a
partial diversion of this volume into the Kashmir Valley, which is drained by
the Jhelum River with an average discharge near Baramulla of approximately 229
cubic meters per second , would drastically increase the water volume within
the valley's river system. This influx of water would almost certainly exceed
the Jhelum River's capacity, leading to extensive and potentially permanent
flooding of the Kashmir Valley. The already complex flood management situation
in the valley, exacerbated by sediment inputs and uncontrolled development in
the floodplain, would be further aggravated by such a significant increase in water
volume.
5.2.
Feasibility of Diverting the Jhelum River Southward:
If the Indus
River were to be diverted into the Kashmir Valley, the resulting increase in
water volume within the Jhelum River system would likely necessitate a
subsequent diversion of the Jhelum River itself to prevent the valley from
drowning. However, diverting the Jhelum River southward from the Kashmir Valley
presents its own set of significant geographical and engineering challenges.
The Pir Panjal range, which forms the southwestern boundary of the Kashmir
Valley, acts as a substantial geographical barrier. Existing tunnels through
this range are primarily designed for transportation purposes, such as the
Jawahar Tunnel and the Banihal Qazigund Road Tunnel, and are not suitable for
large-scale water diversion. Therefore, diverting the Jhelum southward would
likely require the construction of new, large-scale tunnels or canals through
or over the Pir Panjal range, presenting considerable engineering hurdles.
5.3.
Engineering and Geographical Challenges of Jhelum Diversion:
Diverting
the Jhelum River southward would involve engineering challenges similar to
those associated with the Indus diversion, including navigating mountainous
terrain, potentially overcoming elevation gains, and the need for extensive
tunneling or canal construction. The terrain south of the Pir Panjal range is
also characterized by hills and rugged topography , which would further
complicate the construction of diversion channels. Moreover, large-scale river
diversions often have significant environmental impacts on the areas from which
water is diverted and the areas receiving the diverted water. These potential
environmental ramifications would need to be carefully assessed and mitigated.
5.4.
Potential Destinations for the Diverted Jhelum River:
The Jhelum
River naturally flows westward and then southward to join the Chenab River in
Pakistan. If diverted south of the Pir Panjal within Indian territory,
potential destinations for the Jhelum River could include tributaries of the
Chenab River or possibly the Ravi River, which flows further to the east. The
existing network of irrigation canals south of the Pir Panjal in the Jammu
region might also offer some potential pathways, either natural or through
modifications. However, the feasibility and environmental consequences of
diverting the Jhelum to any of these alternative routes would require detailed
study, considering the existing water resource distribution and the specific
geographical and hydrological characteristics of the potential receiving river
systems.
6.
Conclusion: Complexities and Strategic Implications of Himalayan River
Diversions
The prospect
of diverting the Indus River towards the Kashmir Valley presents a series of
overwhelming challenges. The substantial elevation difference between the Indus
River's course and the Kashmir Valley, coupled with the formidable barrier of
the Pir Panjal range, poses significant geographical hurdles. The engineering
requirements for such a project, including the construction of mega-dams and
extensive tunneling, would be immense and incredibly costly, potentially
reaching hundreds of billions of US dollars. Furthermore, diverting the Indus
into the already flood-prone Kashmir Valley and the Jhelum River system would
very likely lead to catastrophic flooding, rendering the valley largely
uninhabitable. While a subsequent diversion of the Jhelum River southward might
be considered to mitigate this risk, it would encounter similar geographical
and engineering challenges, including traversing the Pir Panjal range and
navigating rugged terrain.
Beyond the
physical and financial obstacles, any attempt to divert the Indus River would
have profound geopolitical implications, particularly concerning the Indus
Waters Treaty with Pakistan. This treaty governs the sharing of waters from the
Indus River system between India and Pakistan, and any unilateral action to
divert a major portion of the Indus flow would likely be viewed as a violation
of the treaty and could escalate regional tensions.
In
conclusion, while the concept of diverting the Indus River towards the Kashmir
Valley might seem appealing on the surface, a thorough analysis reveals that it
is a highly improbable undertaking. The overwhelming geographical, engineering,
financial, environmental, and geopolitical challenges make such a project
exceedingly difficult and potentially disastrous.
7. Tables
Table 1:
River Origins and Courses
|
River |
Origin
Location |
Major
Tributaries |
Course
Description |
Confluence/Mouth |
|
Zanskar |
Northeast
of Great Himalayan Range |
Doda
River, Lungnak River (formed by Kargyag and Tsarap rivers) |
Flows
northeast through Zanskar region, unites with Indus River near Nimo in Ladakh |
Indus
River |
|
Indus |
Northeast
of Mount Kailash, Western Tibet |
Zanskar,
Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul, Panjnad (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) |
Flows
northwest through Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan, bends south after Nanga
Parbat, through Punjab and Sindh plains |
Arabian
Sea near Karachi |
|
Shyok |
Rimo
Glacier, Karakoram Range |
Nubra,
Saltoro, Chang Chen Mo, Galwan |
Flows SE
then NW parallel to previous path, through Nubra Valley, narrow gorge, enters
Baltistan |
Indus
River near Skardu |
|
Jhelum |
Vernag
Spring, Jammu and Kashmir |
Lidder,
Sind, Pohru, Kishanganga, Kunhar, Poonch |
Meanders
NW through Kashmir Valley, Wular Lake, crosses Pir Panjal, flows into
Pakistan |
Chenab
River near Trimmu, Pakistan |
Export to
Sheets
Table 2:
Comparison of Indus River and Kashmir Valley Elevations
|
Location |
Elevation
(meters) |
Elevation
(feet) |
|
Indus
River Source (Tibet) |
~5,500 |
~18,000 |
|
Indus
River at Leh (Ladakh) |
3,520 |
11,550 |
|
Indus
River Lowest in Ladakh |
2,550 |
8,370 |
|
Indus
River near Skardu (GB) |
~2,500 |
~8,202 |
|
Kashmir
Valley (Average) |
1,850 |
6,070 |
|
Pir Panjal
Range (Average) |
3,000-4,000 |
10,000-13,000 |
Export to
Sheets
Table 3:
Cost Estimates for Mega Dam and Tunnel Projects in the Himalayas
|
Project
Name |
Type |
Location |
Estimated
Cost (USD Billion) |
Length
(km) |
Capacity
(MW) |
|
Three
Gorges Dam |
Dam |
China
(Yangtze River) |
~31.7 |
2.3 (dam
length) |
22,500 |
|
Medog Dam
(Proposed) |
Dam |
China
(Yarlung Tsangpo) |
~137 |
N/A |
~60,000 |
|
China-Nepal
Railway Tunnel |
Railway
Tunnel |
Himalayas |
~4.3
(total project) |
Varies |
N/A |
|
Silkyara
Tunnel |
Road
Tunnel |
India
(Uttarakhand) |
~0.1 (USD
equivalent) |
4.5 |
N/A |
8.
References
{url: https://environmentclearance.nic.in/DownloadPfdFile.aspx?FileName=7HGVA7x+mG/JP2dSiPQngv7CpXt2QB6arxygRQfCZjzpB/UQo1IPECf46WKu3ARKnUPKUdY6PgQ2RNaIB0CebrzmTOK6wQ9u+h8Un+/f+EE=&FilePath=93ZZBm8LWEXfg+HAlQix2fE2t8z/pgnoBhDlYdZCxzUlDadBGu7t8v4JoQvNU6UBlSmL0YQ7WQYaxkvlQvexKQ==}
{url: http://jtfrp.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Task1_Report_Final.pdf}
{url: https://forestsclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Addinfo/0_0_11116121012161DPR.pdf}
{url: https://econ.pku.edu.cn/docs/2024-06/20240619161818988011.pdf}
{url: https://geospatial.blogs.com/geospatial/2011/03/large-water-diversion-projects-and-the-environment.html}
{url: https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/pdf/10.1680/iicep.1959.12103}
{url: https://www.witpress.com/Secure/elibrary/papers/WRM05/WRM05039FU.pdf}
{url: http://jtfrp.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Task1_Report_Final.pdf}
{url: https://www.cowi.com/projects/thirty-mile-diversion-channel-project-will-protect-235-000-people-from-floods/}
{url: https://indianwetlands.in/wp-content/uploads/library/TEEB-Wular.pdf}
{url: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/16/2/357}
{url: https://jps.pu.edu.pk/6/article/download/170/170}
{url: https://www.indiaspend.com/h-library/2022/05/22/Chapter2_wular.pdf}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rivers_interlinking_project}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371125351_Geoheritage_Merits_of_the_Zanskar_Range_of_the_Kashmir_Himalaya_a_Field_Geology_Museum_from_Precambrian_to_Present}
{url: https://www.jkforest.gov.in/assets/pdf/publications/DPR_Jehlum_overview.pdf}
{url: https://www.iodp-china.org/Assets/userfiles/sys_eb538c1c-65ff-4e82-8e6a-a1ef01127fed/files/Feng%20Han.pdf}
{url: https://parivesh.nic.in/utildoc/119458936_1738845706968.pdf}
{url: http://iwai.nic.in/sites/default/files/5809465372NW-49%20Final%20FSR%20Jhelum%20Report.pdf}
{url: https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/adapting-climate-change-zanskar-valley}
{url: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02626667.2014.947291}
{url: https://www.jkforest.gov.in/assets/pdf/publications/DPR_Jehlum_overview.pdf}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322206489_Landscape_of_the_Indus_River}
{url: https://pecongress.org.pk/images/upload/books/1-Abdul%20Khaliq%20Khan.pdf}
{url: https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/17/1503/2013/hess-17-1503-2013.pdf}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Topographic-Map-of-Kashmir-valley-and-adjoining-regions-along-with-surface-projection-of_fig4_346026176}
{url: https://pecongress.org.pk/images/upload/books/1-Abdul%20Khaliq%20Khan.pdf}
{url: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/hydrological-investigations-at-biafo-glacier-karakoram-range-himalaya-an-important-source-of-water-for-the-indus-river/43D233BB5EDCA3000431DBF28EC083E2}
{url: https://burbank.faculty.geol.ucsb.edu/Site/Publications_files/Burbank-Fort%20controls%20on%20glac%20JGlaciol%201985.pdf}
{url: https://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc16/papers/1615_626.pdf}
{url: https://www.jkforest.gov.in/assets/pdf/publications/DPR_Jehlum_Vol1.pdf}
{url: https://www.dawn.com/news/379406/neelum-jhelum-hydel-project}
{url: https://www.pwri.go.jp/icharm/training/master/img/2023/synopses/3_Yawar_Synopsis_Final.pdf}
{url: https://lifeontheplanetladakh.com/blog/ladakh-rivers-lifelines-desert-mountain}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367326663_Sand_Dunes_Morphology_and_Migration_in_Shyok_Valley_Ladakh_Himalaya_India}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Waters_Treaty} {url: https://www.omicsonline.org/hydro-meteorological-characteristics-of-indus-river-basin-at-extreme-north-of-pakistan-2157-7617.1000170.php?aid=22433}
{url: https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/mgrt/ifc-pakistan-hydropower-jhelum-poonch.pdf}
{url: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/glaciotectonic-landform-in-the-shyok-valley-transhimalayan-karakoram-range-india/2D5CCC7C7CCD0C13F4F85F431EE050D5}
{url: https://www.voanews.com/a/south-central-asia_pakistani-kashmir-residents-fear-power-project-will-destroy-economy-livelihood/6194961.html}
{url: https://jkforest.gov.in/assets/pdf/wplans/PIRPANJAL_WP_PART1.pdf}
{url: https://jkrevenue.nic.in/pdf/Relief_rehab/JTFRP_Draft_ESMF_18.04.2015.pdf}
{url: https://ges.rgo.ru/jour/article/view/1156}
{url: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2022.767411/full}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Relief-map-of-the-Kashmir-valley-and-the-adjoining-areas-showing-the-location-of-the_fig1_360277147}
{url: https://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/150585/0}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gyao5cdhvPw}
{url: https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!bharat/indus-water-treaty-put-on-hold-india-may-explore-river-diversion-say-experts-enn25042406487}
{url: https://travelthehimalayas.com/kiki/the-junction-of-the-three-mightiest-mountain-ranges}
{url: https://www.nature.org/en-us/newsroom/colorado-maybell-construction-completion/}
{url: https://bioone.org/journals/mountain-research-and-development/volume-32/issue-1/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00091.1/Irrigation-and-Development-in-the-Upper-Indus-Basin--Characteristics/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00091.1.full}
{url: https://dialogue.earth/en/climate/climate-ladakh-agriculture/}
{url: https://www.cgwb.gov.in/old_website/District_Profile/JandK/Poonch.pdf}
{url: https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/energy-business/new-project-development/969-mw-neelum-jhelum-project-begins-filling-reservoir/}
{url: https://china.aiddata.org/projects/35266/}
{url: https://www.devayanikh.com/post/ladakh-a-tale-of-colliding-continents}
{url: https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/top-headlines/govt-calls-key-meet-today-to-assess-ground-implementation-of-indus-water-treaty-suspension/}
{url: https://www.pakistanreview.com/index.php/GJPR/article/download/130/80/419}
{url: https://wapda.gov.pk/hydro-reservior}
{url: https://www.eco-business.com/news/kashmirs-flood-management-plan-faces-heavy-criticism/}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxciOXDmbaQ}
{url: https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-166?p=emailA8vmAIRsqyOz.&d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-166}
{url: https://www.ksgindia.com/blog/indus-river-system.html}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River/Irrigation}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skardu}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Waters_Treaty} {url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kishanganga_Hydroelectric_Project}
{url: https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-conflict-and-cooperation-between-india-and-pakistan}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1Mq7Pkm1xA&pp=0gcJCdgAo7VqN5tD}
{url: https://greenverz.com/the-karakoram-range/}
{url: https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/environmental-sciences/indus-river}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=29l4Y949PEg}
{url: https://iwaponline.com/wpt/article/doi/10.2166/wpt.2024.225/104605/Forecasting-monthly-peak-flows-for-the-flood-prone}
{url: http://iwai.nic.in/sites/default/files/5809465372NW-49%20Final%20FSR%20Jhelum%20Report.pdf}
{url: https://indiachronicle.in/navigating-water-diplomacy-indias-strategic-shift-with-the-indus-water-treaty/}
{url: https://pwonlyias.com/udaan/exploring-indus-river-system/}
{url: https://yris.yira.org/essays/hydropolitics-in-the-indus-basin-the-indus-water-treaty-water-mismanagement-in-pakistan/}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%E2%80%93North_Water_Transfer_Project}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam}
{url: https://cod.pressbooks.pub/easternworlddailyreadingsgeography/chapter/south-asia-political-geography-ii/}
{url: https://kashmirmountains.com/zanskar-range/}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Shyok-River}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River}
{url: https://www.livemint.com/news/indus-water-treaty-suspended-five-ways-it-empowers-india-what-it-means-for-pakistans-crippling-economy-11745476502501.html}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Ladakh-Range}
{url: https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=jhelum}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanskar}
{url: https://pwonlyias.com/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://peakvisor.com/adm/jammu-and-kashmir.html}
{url: https://www.himalayanclub.org/hj/1/2/the-shyok-dam-in-1928/}
{url: https://www.zuyetawarmatrip.com/en/trips/2022-may-leh-indus-zanskar-india/}
{url: https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/china-pakistan-economic-corridor-and-jammu-and-kashmir/}
{url: https://gcisc.org.pk/hkh-hydrological-projections/} {url: https://m.economictimes.com/news/india/indias-indus-water-treaty-suspension-after-pahalgam-attack-puts-pakistans-crops-on-the-line/articleshow/120582473.cms}
{url: https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!bharat/indus-water-treaty-put-on-hold-india-may-explore-river-diversion-say-experts-enn25042406487}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River}
{url: https://amoghavarshaiaskas.in/key-facts-about-jhelum-river/}
{url: https://www.sdpb.org/2019-03-13/amid-the-unrest-in-kashmir-dal-lakes-floating-produce-market-is-a-lifeline}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Ladakh} {url: https://forumias.com/blog/zanskar-river/}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346304933_Cost_Risk_Assessment_of_13_km_Long_Headrace_Tunnel_in_the_Himalayas}
{url: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/4/24/kashmir-attack-does-indias-indus-waters-treaty-freeze-threaten-pakistan}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanskar}
{url: https://www.pmfias.com/indus-river-system-jhelum-chenab-ravi-beas-satluj/}
{url: https://www.sanctuarynaturefoundation.org/article/lethal-soft-gold-of--karakoram}
{url: http://sh115.global.temp.domains/~ladakhto/blog/shyok-river/}
{url: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9276/8/2/103}
{url: http://sh115.global.temp.domains/~ladakhto/blog/zanskar-valley/}
{url: http://landsurvival.com/schools-wikipedia/wp/i/Indus_River.htm}
{url: https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=jhelum}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Shyok-River}
{url: https://edupreparator.com/blog/post/the-shyok-river-an-insight-into-a-ladakhi-tributary}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River}
{url: http://www.trekkingladakhzanskar.com/about-zanskar.php}
{url: https://water.utah.edu/2018/03/05/university-of-utah-grad-student-uses-spaceborne-radar-to-study-pakistans-glaciers/}
{url: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/articles/Skardu}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River}
{url: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/pg/photo-gallery/scenic-gilgit-baltistan-unfolds-to-world-via-cpec-}
{url: https://brill.com/downloadpdf/display/book/9789004194588/Bej.9789004181595.i-372_006.pdf}
{url: https://www.nextias.com/blog/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://riversinsight.com/jhelum-river/}
{url: https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=jhelum}
{url: https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/rivers/indus.html} {url: https://www.pmfias.com/indus-river-system-jhelum-chenab-ravi-beas-satluj/}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhelum_River}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XUnVHWOISfo}
{url: https://poojn.in/post/23190/indus-river-origin-course-delta-explained}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3WBFEuffWPE}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Ladakh} {url: https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1999780/worlds-largest-mega-dam}
{url: https://wri-india.org/blog/regional-planning-climate-vulnerable-geographies-understanding-case-kashmir-valley}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suru_River_(Indus}
{url: http://sh115.global.temp.domains/~ladakhto/blog/indus-river-in-ladakh/}
{url: https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-exam/indus-water-treaty/}
{url: https://www.nextias.com/blog/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://www.team-bhp.com/forum/travelogues/270892-white-glacier-journey-through-zanskar-hear-stories-climate-change.html}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanskar_River}
{url: https://pwonlyias.com/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://www.business-standard.com/external-affairs-defence-security/news/india-suspends-indus-waters-treaty-pakistan-impact-agriculture-power-125042400376_1.html}
{url: https://fwegb.gov.pk/cknp/}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-map-and-altitude-zonation-of-Kashmir-valley_fig1_260797457}
{url: https://www.pmfias.com/indus-river-system-jhelum-chenab-ravi-beas-satluj/}
{url: https://aquaterra.in/last-horizon-zanskar-river-copper-canyon/}
{url: https://ssdi.jk.gov.in/profiles/dkan/themes/nuboot_radix/templates/page/homepage/Directory%20of%20Lakes%20&%20Waterbodies%20of%20J&K%20State.pdf}
{url: http://iwai.nic.in/sites/default/files/5809465372NW-49%20Final%20FSR%20Jhelum%20Report.pdf}
{url: https://www.deccanherald.com/features/quietly-flows-the-indus-966474.html}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Valley}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70Ey9xbg4CU}
{url: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/WorldOfChange/Indus}
{url: https://www.pakistanreview.com/index.php/GJPR/article/download/130/80}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Shyok-River}
{url: https://www.iasgyan.in/daily-current-affairs/shyok-river}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383778387_Forecasting_monthly_peak_flows_for_the_flood-prone_River_Jhelum_in_the_Kashmir_Valley_India}
{url: https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=jammu_and_kashmir}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River}
{url: https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/south-of-pir-panjal-terrors-new-address-in-jammu-and-kashmir-5882608}
{url: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/43890/indus-river-pakistan}
{url: https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Kashmir}
{url: http://mpgmahavidyalaya.org/userfiles/Kashmir%20valley.pdf}
{url: http://sh115.global.temp.domains/~ladakhto/blog/zanskar-valley/}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Zanskar-Range}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River}
{url: https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-378?d=%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277727.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190277727-e-378&p=emailAotobQhu9Ds06}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Jhelum-River}
{url: https://swarajyamag.com/defence/indus-waters-treaty-why-india-cant-weaponise-water-against-pakistan-yet}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyok_River}
{url: https://jkswrra.nic.in/Reports/kashmir_valley.pdf} {url: https://travelpakistani.com/blogs/burzil-pass-astore-valley---gilgit-baltistan/246}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan/The-Himalayan-and-Karakoram-ranges}
{url: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/12/3/730}
{url: https://rrvafm.com/project-progress/}
{url: https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/skardu.html?blackwhite=1}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Valley}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burzil_Pass}
{url: http://sh115.global.temp.domains/~ladakhto/blog/indus-river-in-ladakh/}
{url: https://www.worldatlas.com/regions/kashmir.html}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Valley}
{url: https://www.iasgyan.in/daily-current-affairs/shyok-river}
{url: https://shopian.nic.in/places-of-interest/}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Vale-of-Kashmir}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakhan_Corridor}
{url: http://w.arizonahandbook.com/India_H3.htm}
{url: https://www.newindianexpress.com/web-only/2025/Apr/24/pahalgam-attack-kashmirs-message-and-delhis-blind-spot}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Jhelum-River}
{url: https://dialogue.earth/en/climate/kashmir-valley-offers-little-respite-south-asia-heatwaves/}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanskar}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhelum_River}
{url: https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/Kashmir-political-map.htm}
{url: https://www.americanscientist.org/article/kashmir-valley-megaearthquakes}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Pir-Panjal-Range} {url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mwIYxNe0Btk}
{url: https://www.nextias.com/blog/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/indus-river-map?image_type=illustration}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Digital-elevation-map-DEM-of-the-Kashmir-Valley-demarcating-various-watershed-and_fig1_337930839}
{url: https://riversinsight.com/shyok-river/}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=viVQvv6bfQ4}
{url: https://tourismdept.gbit.gov.pk/tour/id/88}
{url: https://highways.today/2023/09/22/himalayan-railway/} {url:
https://www.britannica.com/place/Ladakh-Range}
{url: https://subratachak.wordpress.com/2017/05/27/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhelum_River}
{url: https://lotusarise.com/indus-river-system-upsc/}
{url: https://leh.ladakhonline.in/guide/confluence-of-the-indus-and-zanskar-rivers}
{url: https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/rivers/indus.html} {url: https://www.civilsdaily.com/news/in-news-shyok-river/}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh}
{url: https://fr-be.topographic-map.com/map-gtzznx/Kashmir-Valley/}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgit-Baltistan}
{url: https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=101126}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River}
{url: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/4/24/kashmir-attack-does-indias-indus-waters-treaty-freeze-threaten-pakistan}
{url: https://www.amargranth.com/post/indus-tributaries-ravi-beas-jhelum-chenab-sutlej}
{url: https://www.ifcjmu.gov.in/irrigation-canals.html}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pir_Panjal_Range}
{url: https://www.jammukashmirnow.com/Encyc/2018/9/12/TEN-FACTS-ABOUT-GILGIT-BALTISTAN.amp.html}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Leh}
{url: https://tourism.gov.pk/publications/Northern%20Map.pdf}
{url: http://openarchive.icomos.org/419/1/4-11.pdf}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyok_River}
{url: https://www.nextias.com/blog/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://m.thewire.in/article/diplomacy/a-10-point-plan-to-turn-gilgit-baltistan-into-a-zone-of-development-for-all?utm=authorpage}
{url: https://www.dawn.com/news/1906075}
{url: https://m.economictimes.com/news/defence/indus-waters-treaty-pakistan-says-change-in-flow-of-water-is-act-of-war-pledges-full-force-against-india/articleshow/120583813.cms}
{url: https://dialogue.earth/en/nature/riverbed-mining-kashmir-permissions-final-straw-for-fish/}
{url: https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyok_River}
{url: https://www.pmfias.com/indus-river-system-jhelum-chenab-ravi-beas-satluj/}
{url: https://www.schoolnet.org.za/PILAfrica/en/webs/10131/zanska_7.htm}
{url: https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/oqtfv0/the_topographyterrain_map_of_the_indian/}
{url: https://www.reddit.com/r/GeopoliticsIndia/comments/1k66j8k/now_that_indus_water_treaty_is_suspended_do_we/}
{url: https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-kashmir-that-india-lost-a-historical-analysis-of-india-s-miscalculations-on-gilgit-baltistan}
{url: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150789/kashmir-valley-haze}
{url: https://www.isdp.eu/publication/cascading-effects-will-chinas-new-dam-create-a-himalayan-rift/}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Vale-of-Kashmir}
{url: https://testbook.com/question-answer/river-indus-originates-from--59c909489391ca60342a3c7a}
{url: https://www.thedispatch.in/kashmir-valley-geography-topography-demography/}
{url: https://www.morningkashmir.com/parched-kashmir-jhelum-river-and-streams-hit-record-breaking-low-levels-amid-dry-spell/}
{url: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/1/24/dam-for-a-dam-india-china-edge-towards-a-himalayan-water-war}
{url: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ZRawoOtmshA&t=0s} {url: https://www.rome2rio.com/s/Kalasha-Valleys/Skardu}
{url: https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-daily-current-affairs/prelims-pointers/jhelum/}
{url: https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-daily-current-affairs/prelims-pointers/key-facts-about-shyok-river/}
{url: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/ancient-india/a/the-indus-river-valley-civilizations}
{url: https://indiawris.gov.in/downloads/Indus%20Basin.pdf} {url:
https://www.britannica.com/place/Gilgit-River}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhelum_River}
{url: https://mershoncenter.osu.edu/jhelum-river}
{url: https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/silkyara-why-massive-infrastructure-projects-in-himalayas-is-bad-620655.html}
{url: https://wikitravel.org/en/Kashmir_Valley}
{url: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-map-of-Jhelum-Basin-and-active-rock-glaciers-on-the-Pir-Panjal-mountain-range_fig1_360782509}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skardu}
{url: https://m.economictimes.com/news/defence/india-pulls-the-plug-on-indus-waters-treaty-what-it-means-and-how-it-can-hit-pakistan-where-it-hurts-most/articleshow/120557937.cms}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pir_Panjal_Range}
{url: http://www.ladakhdekho.com/indus-river.html}
{url: https://heliservice.ladakh.gov.in/zanskar}
{url: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/water/jk-government-admits-drains-discharge-untreated-wastewater-into-local-streams-flowing-into-jhelum}
{url: https://www.dailygoodmorningkashmir.com/receding-water-levels/}
{url: https://sudarshangurjar.com/indus-river-system/}
{url: https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/china-s-medog-county-mega-dam-bad-news-india-bangladesh}
{url: https://dialogue.earth/en/water/indus-cascade-a-himalayan-blunder/}
{url: https://jkfilm.jk.gov.in/pages/terrain}
{url: https://www.deccanherald.com/india/jammu-and-kashmir/jk-the-shifting-theatre-of-terror-3113704}
{url: https://www.indiatoday.in/opinion/story/we-rooted-out-militancy-from-jammu-in-2009-so-why-is-it-back-again-opinion-2568136-2024-07-17}
{url: https://www.journeysinternational.com/destination/asia/indus-valley/}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Gilgit-River}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Jhelum-River#:~:text=The%20Jhelum%20rises%20from%20a,Srinagar%2C%20which%20controls%20its%20flow.}
{url: https://fairobserver.com/more/environment/china-builds-mega-dam-to-gain-leverage-over-south-asia/}
{url: https://www.britannica.com/place/Jhelum-River}
{url: https://srinagar.nic.in/about-district/}
{url: https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/water-level-in-jhelum-hits-lowest-as-dry-spell-continues-in-kashmir-4862556}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Valley}
{url: https://cenjows.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Layout_THE-GILGIT-AND-BALTISTAN-REGIONS-OF-JK_-Inside_28-11-17.pdf}
{url: https://mershoncenter.osu.edu/jhelum-river}
{url: http://sh115.global.temp.domains/~ladakhto/blog/shyok-river/#:~:text=The%20Shyok%20river%20is%20a,550%20km%20(340%20mi.}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanskar_River#:~:text=It%20originates%20northeast%20of%20the,the%20Indus%20River%20near%20Nimo.}
{url: https://www.nextias.com/blog/indus-river-system/#:~:text=The%20Indus%20River%20originates%20from,the%20Karakoram%20and%20Ladakh%20ranges.}
{url:
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River#:~:text=The%203%2C180%20km%20(1%2C980%20mi,the%20left%20after%20the%20Nanga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River#:~:text=The%203%2C180%20km%20(1%2C980%20mi,the%20left%20after%20the%20Nanga)}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Valley}
{url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir}
{url: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=viVQvv6bfQ4}
{url: https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1955/december/kashmir-valley-indecision}
{url: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/4/23/act-of-war-what-happened-in-kashmir-attack-that-killed-26-tourists}
{url: https://www.nextias.com/blog/indus-river-system/#:~:text=The%20Indus%20River%20originates%20from,the%20Karakoram%20and%20Ladakh%20ranges.}
Comments
Post a Comment