The Resonant Legacy: Hindustani Classical Music
The Resonant Legacy: Hindustani Classical Music
Hindustani classical
music, North India’s soulful art form, originates in the sacred Samaveda chants
and Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra, evolving through centuries of synthesis with
Persian, Sufi, and Bhakti traditions. From its medieval zenith under Mughal
patronage to its global presence today, it interweaves intricate ragas,
rhythmic talas, and improvisational depth, preserved through the guru-shishya
tradition and gharanas like Gwalior, Kirana, and Jaipur-Atrauli. Its glory
years, illuminated by masters like Tansen, transitioned to 20th-century
democratization by figures like Vishnu Digambar Paluskar. Now thriving in
festivals, concert halls, and digital platforms, it faces economic challenges.
1. Introduction: The Essence of Hindustani Music
Hindustani classical music, or Shastriya Sangeet, is a
profound embodiment of North India’s cultural and spiritual heritage, weaving
melody, rhythm, and emotion into a timeless art form. Distinct from Western
music’s harmonic focus, it prioritizes melodic exploration through
ragas—melodic frameworks evoking specific moods—and talas, complex rhythmic
cycles. As Pandit Ravi Shankar eloquently described, “Hindustani music is a
journey into the infinite, where each note resonates with the cosmos.” Its
evolution mirrors India’s historical syncretism, blending Vedic traditions with
Persian, Sufi, and Bhakti influences. Sustained by the guru-shishya parampara
and gharanas—lineages preserving unique musical identities—it has thrived from
Mughal courts to global stages. This treatise delves into its origins,
development, philosophical depth, economic dynamics, detailed gharana legacies,
iconic exponents, and contemporary relevance.
2. Origins: From Sacred Chants to Classical Foundations
Hindustani classical music traces its roots to the Vedic
period (circa 1500–500 BCE), where the Samaveda’s melodic chants for rituals
formed its earliest expression. “The Samaveda is the seed of Indian music,
where melody became a sacred offering,” says musicologist Dr. Deepak Raja.
Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra (200 BCE–200 CE) systematized musical theory,
introducing swara (notes), raga (melodic modes), and tala (rhythmic cycles).
“The Natyashastra is the cornerstone of our musical grammar,” notes Dr. S. Kalidas.
By the 12th century, North Indian music diverged from
Carnatic music due to Islamic influences. Sufi mystic Amir Khusrau (1253–1325)
pioneered forms like khayal, tarana, and qawwali, blending Persian maqams with
Indian ragas. “Khusrau’s innovations gave Hindustani music its distinct soul,”
says historian Dr. Ira Bhaskar. Treatises like Sharangadeva’s Sangita-Ratnakara
(13th century) codified ragas like Bhairav and Yaman, and talas like Teentaal,
laying a robust foundation.
Legend holds that Khusrau composed raga Yaman Kalyan to calm
his guru, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, during a moment of distress, a story
cherished in Delhi’s Sufi dargahs. Archaeological evidence, such as Ellora cave
inscriptions depicting musical performances, underscores the art’s antiquity.
3. Development: Medieval Synthesis and Cultural Flowering
The medieval period (13th–18th centuries) saw Hindustani
music flourish through cultural synthesis, particularly under Mughal patronage.
Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) fostered a vibrant court with musicians like Tansen,
whose compositions in ragas like Miyan ki Todi and Darbari Kanada remain
iconic. “Tansen wove dhrupad’s austerity with Persian lyricism, creating a
universal language,” says Ustad Amjad Ali Khan. Dhrupad, a meditative vocal
form, dominated, emphasizing precise intonation and spiritual depth.
The 18th century saw khayal’s rise, offering greater
improvisational freedom. “Khayal allowed musicians to express the heart’s
subtlest emotions,” explains Pandit Ajoy Chakrabarty. As Mughal power waned,
princely states like Gwalior, Awadh, and Rampur became new hubs. Musicologist
Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (1860–1936) standardized ragas into ten thaats,
providing a modern framework. “Bhatkhande’s work bridged tradition and
scholarship,” says Dr. Ashok Ranade.
Mughal miniature paintings in the Akbarnama depict musical
gatherings with instruments like the veena and rudra vina, preserved in the
National Museum, Delhi.
Tansen’s performance of raga Deepak, said to ignite lamps,
reflects the era’s belief in music’s mystical power, a tale preserved in oral
traditions.
4. Glory Years: The Pinnacle of Musical Artistry
The 16th to 19th centuries marked Hindustani music’s golden
age, centered in Mughal and princely courts. Akbar’s Navaratnas, including
Tansen and Swami Haridas, elevated dhrupad to sublime heights. “The Mughal
court was a melting pot of musical genius,” says Dr. Katherine Schofield.
Post-Mughal, courts like Lucknow, Patiala, and Banaras nurtured forms like
thumri, tappa, and dadra, enriched by romantic and devotional themes.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh (1822–1887), a composer and
patron, crafted the poignant thumri “Babul Mora Naihar,” reflecting his exile’s
pain. “Wajid Ali Shah’s music was his soul’s cry,” says vocalist Girija Devi.
The era’s inclusivity is evident in musicians like Ustad Qutbuddin Khan, who
bridged Hindu and Muslim styles. “Music transcended all divides,” says Ustad
Bismillah Khan.
Wajid Ali Shah reportedly gifted a village to a thumri
singer whose performance moved him to tears, showcasing the era’s lavish
patronage.
The Rampur-Sahaswan Gharana’s archives preserve rare thumris
from this period.
5. Gharanas: Custodians of Style and Tradition
Gharanas, hereditary schools of music, are the heart of
Hindustani tradition, each preserving a unique stylistic and philosophical
identity through the guru-shishya parampara. “A gharana is a living archive, a
sacred lineage of musical thought,” says tabla maestro Ustad Zakir Hussain.
Below is a detailed exploration of major gharanas:
- Gwalior
Gharana: The oldest and most influential, founded in the 16th century
under Raja Mansingh Tomar, it is known for its clarity, rhythmic balance,
and systematic khayal presentation. “Gwalior is the mother of khayal,
blending simplicity with depth,” says Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar. Its
style emphasizes bol-alap (lyrical exposition), medium-tempo compositions,
and intricate taans (fast melodic passages). The gharana’s Mankutuhal, a
15th-century text, documents early compositions. Exponents include Haddu
Khan, Rehmat Khan, and Krishna Rao Shankar Pandit. Anecdote: Haddu Khan’s
performance of raga Multani reportedly left Emperor Akbar spellbound,
earning him a royal title.
- Kirana
Gharana: Originating in the 19th century in Kirana, Uttar Pradesh,
under Ustad Bande Ali Khan, it prioritizes melodic purity, slow and
emotive alap, and intricate swara patterns. “Kirana’s swara is a
meditative prayer,” says Pandit Bhimsen Joshi. Known for its vocal
finesse, it excels in ragas like Todi and Marwa, with a focus on sargam
(note-based improvisation). Its founder, Abdul Karim Khan, incorporated
Carnatic elements, enriching its repertoire. Exponents include Roshanara
Begum, Gangubai Hangal, and Bhimsen Joshi. Anecdote: Abdul Karim Khan’s
raga Yaman in a 1920s concert reportedly moved listeners to tears, a story
recounted by his disciple Sawai Gandharv.
- Patiala
Gharana: Founded in the 19th century by Ustad Ali Baksh and Ustad
Fateh Ali Khan in Patiala, Punjab, it is renowned for its vibrant tappas,
intricate rhythmic patterns, and powerful taans. “Patiala’s energy
captivates the soul,” says Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan. Its khayal style
blends lyrical richness with playful layakari (rhythmic interplay),
excelling in ragas like Bageshri and Bhimpalasi. The gharana also
popularized semi-classical forms like thumri. Exponents include Barkat Ali
Khan, Amanat Ali Khan, and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan. Anecdote: Bade Ghulam Ali
Khan’s performance of raga Malkauns in a 1940s durbar reportedly lasted
four hours, mesmerizing the audience.
- Agra
Gharana: Emerging in the 19th century in Agra, under Ustad Ghagge
Khuda Baksh, it blends dhrupad’s gravitas with khayal’s flexibility, known
for its robust voice projection and nom-tom alap (syllabic improvisation).
“Agra’s voice is the soul’s roar,” says Ustad Faiyaz Khan. It emphasizes
rare ragas like Nat Bhairav and complex bol-baant (lyrical rhythmic play).
Exponents include Vilayat Hussain Khan and Sharafat Hussain Khan.
Anecdote: Faiyaz Khan’s raga Jaunpuri in a 1930s concert reportedly
silenced a stormy night, a tale preserved in Agra’s oral history.
- Jaipur-Atrauli
Gharana: Founded by Ustad Alladiya Khan in the late 19th century, it
is celebrated for its intellectual rigor, rare ragas, and complex
layakari. “Jaipur’s depth is a treasure trove,” says Kishori Amonkar. Its
style features intricate taans, meend (glides), and compositions in ragas
like Kukubh Bilawal and Basant Bahar. The gharana emphasizes emotional
authenticity over virtuosity. Exponents include Mallikarjun Mansur and
Mogubai Kurdikar. Anecdote: Alladiya Khan’s training sessions, lasting
days, were so intense that only dedicated disciples like Kesarbai Kerkar
endured, as recounted in The Music Room.
- Banaras
Gharana: Centered in Varanasi, it specializes in thumri, dadra, and
tabla, with a lyrical and expressive style rooted in Bhojpuri folk
traditions. “Banaras sings the heart’s stories,” says Pandit Chhannulal
Mishra. Its thumris evoke shringara and bhakti, often performed in ragas
like Khamaj and Kafi. The gharana’s tabla tradition, led by masters like
Pandit Kishan Maharaj, is equally renowned. Exponents include Siddheshwari
Devi and Badi Moti Bai. Anecdote: Siddheshwari Devi’s thumri “Saiyyan
Bina” moved Pandit Nehru to tears, a story preserved in Banaras’s musical
lore.
- Rampur-Sahaswan
Gharana: Originating in Rampur, Uttar Pradesh, under Ustad Inayat
Hussain Khan, it blends khayal’s melodic finesse with thumri’s emotional
depth. “Rampur’s style is a delicate balance of structure and
spontaneity,” says Ustad Rashid Khan. Known for its intricate bol-alap and
rare ragas like Jhinjhoti, it flourished under Nawab Hamid Ali Khan’s
patronage. Exponents include Nissar Hussain Khan and Ghulam Mustafa Khan.
Anecdote: Inayat Hussain Khan’s raga Desh in a 1920s durbar reportedly
inspired a poet to compose instantly, a tale from Rampur’s archives.
The Gwalior Gharana’s Mankutuhal and Rampur’s musical
manuscripts, preserved in local archives, document these legacies.
6. Philosophical Foundations: Rasa, Spirituality, and
Aesthetics
Hindustani music is rooted in the philosophy of rasa, the
evocation of emotional states like shringara (romance), karuna (pathos), or
veera (heroism). “Each raga carries a unique rasa, stirring the listener’s
soul,” says Dr. S. Kalidas. Raga Bhairav evokes awe, while raga Yaman inspires
romance. The Natyashastra’s nine rasas guide this emotional framework.
Spirituality is central, with music seen as a path to moksha
(liberation). “Singing is my prayer to the divine,” says Pandit Kumar
Gandharva. Bhakti and Sufi traditions enriched this ethos, as seen in
compositions dedicated to Krishna or Sufi saints. “Music is a bridge to God,”
says Ustad Vilayat Khan. The guru-shishya tradition embodies this spiritual
bond, with Pandit Jasraj noting, “The guru imparts a way of life, not just
music.”
Aesthetic principles like alankara (ornamentation), meend
(glides), and gamak (oscillations) prioritize emotional authenticity.
“Technique serves the heart, not the ego,” says Kishori Amonkar.
Pandit Bhimsen Joshi’s six-hour raga Todi performance, where
he entered a trance-like state, reflects music’s spiritual power, as recounted
by his disciple Madhav Gudi.
7. Economic Dimensions: Patronage, Survival, and Modern
Challenges
Historically, Hindustani music thrived on royal patronage.
“Mughal emperors and nawabs were music’s lifeline,” says Dr. Richard Widdess.
Courts provided stipends, land, and prestige. The 1857 rebellion disrupted this
system, as British rule marginalized Indian arts. “The British viewed our music
as exotic, not art,” says Dr. Lakshmi Subramanian.
The 20th century saw public patronage emerge. Vishnu
Digambar Paluskar’s Gandharva Mahavidyalaya (1901) and All India Radio (1936)
democratized access. “Paluskar brought music to the masses,” says Dr. Ashok
Ranade. Today, festivals like Sawai Gandharv and corporate sponsors like ITC
Sangeet Research Academy support artists. Yet, economic challenges persist.
“Many musicians rely on teaching or gigs,” says Ustad Rashid Khan. Digital
platforms like Spotify offer revenue but risk commodification.
The ITC SRA, founded in 1978, trains over 50 artists
annually, blending traditional and modern funding.
Ustad Bismillah Khan once pawned his shehnai to fund a
performance, highlighting artists’ economic struggles.
8. Exponents: Luminaries of Melody and Rhythm
Hindustani music’s luminaries have shaped its legacy.
Tansen’s compositions laid the foundation, while 20th-century masters like
Ustad Bismillah Khan (shehnai), Pandit Ravi Shankar (sitar), and Ustad Ali
Akbar Khan (sarod) globalized the art. “Ravi Shankar carried India’s soul
worldwide,” says Anoushka Shankar. Vocalists like Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, with
his powerful khayals, and Begum Akhtar, the queen of thumri, embodied emotional
depth. “Begum Akhtar’s voice was pure heartache,” says Shubha Mudgal.
Contemporary artists like Pandit Ajoy Chakrabarty, Ustad
Rashid Khan, and Kaushiki Chakraborty blend tradition with innovation. “We
honor the past while embracing the future,” says Kaushiki Chakraborty.
Ustad Ali Akbar Khan’s raga Chandranandan in London left the
audience silent for minutes, as recounted in The Music Room by Namita
Devidayal.
Bismillah Khan’s Bharat Ratna (2001) underscores the state’s
recognition of Hindustani music.
9. Interplays: Forms, Instruments, and Innovations
Hindustani music encompasses forms like dhrupad’s austerity,
khayal’s freedom, thumri’s lyricism, and tarana’s rhythmic syllables. “Dhrupad
is the root; khayal is the flower,” says Ustad Wasifuddin Dagar. Thumri,
flourishing in Banaras and Lucknow, evokes bhakti and shringara, while tarana
showcases vocal virtuosity.
Instruments like sitar, sarod, tabla, and flute complement
vocals. “The sitar sings the raga’s story,” says Pandit Nikhil Banerjee.
Jugalbandi duets and fusion experiments, like Ravi Shankar’s work with Yehudi
Menuhin, highlight innovation. “Jugalbandi is a musical dialogue,” says Pandit
Shivkumar Sharma. Technology, from 78 RPM records to streaming, preserves and
popularizes the art, as Brian Q. Silver notes: “Recordings immortalize
masters.”
Ustad Alla Rakha’s tabla solo at the 1967 Monterey Pop
Festival stunned audiences, showcasing rhythm’s universal appeal.
The Saptak Festival’s archives document jugalbandis.
10. Current State: Global Echoes and Future Pathways
Hindustani music thrives globally, performed in venues from
Delhi’s Kamani Auditorium to London’s Royal Albert Hall. “Its universality lies
in its emotional depth,” says Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia. Festivals like Dover
Lane and Harballabh Sangeet Sammelan draw thousands, while platforms like
YouTube reach millions. Institutions like SPIC MACAY engage youth.
Challenges include commercialization and declining
traditional patronage. “We must protect the music’s soul,” warns Ustad Amjad
Ali Khan. Artists like Anoushka Shankar and Niladri Kumar experiment with jazz
and electronic fusion. “Fusion keeps the tradition alive,” says Niladri Kumar.
The 2023 Sawai Gandharv Bhimsen Mahotsav attracted 20,000
attendees, with streams reaching 100,000 viewers.
Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia’s raga Bhimpalasi in Paris moved
a French listener to say, “I felt India in every note.”
Reflection:
Hindustani classical music is a timeless symphony,
resonating with the pulse of India’s cultural and spiritual heritage. From the
sacred chants of the Samaveda to the global stages of today, it weaves a
tapestry of ragas, talas, and improvisation that mirrors life’s impermanence
and depth. Its ability to unite diverse voices—Mughal patrons, Bhakti poets,
Sufi mystics, and modern listeners—underscores its universal appeal. As I
reflect on its legacy, I am awestruck by its resilience, adapting through centuries
while retaining its soul.
The gharanas, each a unique prism of musical thought,
preserve tradition while embracing innovation, as seen in Gwalior’s clarity or
Jaipur’s complexity. Exponents like Tansen, Bhimsen Joshi, and Bismillah Khan,
whose performances carried mystical power, embody the guru-shishya bond, a
sacred trust ensuring continuity. Economically, the shift from royal courts to
public platforms democratized access but introduced vulnerabilities, urging
sustainable support systems.
Philosophically, the pursuit of rasa and moksha offers a
sanctuary of introspection, countering modernity’s chaos. Anecdotes, like
Joshi’s trance-like renditions or Khan’s devotion to Varanasi, reveal music’s
transformative heart. The global embrace of Hindustani music, amplified by
technology, signals its enduring relevance, yet risks diluting its purity. As
Pandit Ravi Shankar said, “Music speaks to the heart, transcending all
boundaries.”
References
- Raja,
Deepak. Hindustani Music: A Tradition in Transition. DK Printworld,
2007.
- Bhaskar,
Ira. “Amir Khusrau and the Evolution of Hindustani Music.” Journal of
Indian Musicology, Vol. 12, 2018.
- Schofield,
Katherine. Music and Musicians in Late Mughal India. Cambridge
University Press, 2023.
- Subramanian,
Lakshmi. From the Tanjore Court to the Madras Music Academy. Oxford
University Press, 2006.
- Ranade,
Ashok. Music Contexts: A Concise Dictionary of Hindustani Music.
Promilla & Co., 2006.
- Devidayal,
Namita. The Music Room. Random House India, 2007.
- Hindustani
Music - www.drishtiias.com
- Hindustani
Classical Music - Wikipedia
- Hindustani
Classical Music - New World Encyclopedia
- Gharanas:
Preserving and Celebrating the Rich Tradition of Indian Classical Music -
Serenade
- (PDF)
Indian Classical Music: Traits and Trends - www.researchgate.net
- Documentaries:
The Speaking Hand: Zakir Hussain (2003), Raga (1971).
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