Indian Classical Dance Forms
The Dance of Divinity: Indian Classical Dance Forms
Indian classical
dance forms, vibrant expressions of India’s cultural and spiritual heritage,
trace their origins to the Natyashastra and temple traditions, evolving through
centuries of regional and royal patronage. From Bharatanatyam’s geometric
precision to Kathak’s narrative grace, each form embodies unique aesthetics,
rooted in rasa (emotion) and spirituality. Flourishing under dynasties like the
Cholas and Mughals, they reached their zenith in temple courtyards and royal
courts, with luminaries like Rukmini Devi Arundale reviving them in the 20th
century. Today, they thrive globally through festivals, institutions, and
digital platforms, though economic challenges persist. This treatise explores
their historical evolution, philosophical foundations, economic dynamics,
patronage shifts, major styles, iconic exponents, stylistic interplays, and
contemporary relevance.
1. Introduction: The Soul of Indian Dance
Indian classical dance is a vibrant tapestry of movement,
music, and storytelling, embodying India’s spiritual and cultural ethos. Rooted
in the Natyashastra, these dances blend nritta (pure dance), nritya (expressive
dance), and natya (drama) to evoke rasa, or emotional essence. As guru Birju
Maharaj noted, “Dance is a prayer, a dialogue between body and soul.” Unlike
Western ballet’s linear narratives, Indian dance emphasizes cyclical rhythms,
intricate footwork, and expressive gestures (mudras). Evolving through temple
rituals, royal courts, and modern stages, forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and
Odissi reflect India’s historical syncretism, integrating Vedic, Bhakti, and
regional influences. Sustained by guru-shishya parampara and regional
traditions, they resonate globally. This treatise explores their origins,
development, philosophical depth, economic dynamics, major styles, exponents,
and contemporary vitality.
2. Origins: From Sacred Rituals to Classical Codification
Indian classical dance traces its roots to Vedic rituals
(circa 1500–500 BCE), where movement complemented sacred chants. The
Natyashastra by Bharata Muni (200 BCE–200 CE) codified dance as a sacred art,
detailing mudras, abhinaya (expression), and rasa. “The Natyashastra is the
heartbeat of Indian dance,” says dance scholar Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan. Temples
became early stages, with devadasis (temple dancers) performing for deities.
By the medieval period, regional styles emerged, shaped by
Bhakti and Sufi movements. “Dance was a devotional offering, uniting the human
and divine,” notes historian Dr. Sunil Kothari. Treatises like Abhinaya Darpana
(13th century) by Nandikeshvara refined techniques, emphasizing hasta (hand
gestures) and bhav (emotion). Archaeological evidence, such as sculptures in
Khajuraho and Konark temples, depicts dancers in poses still used today.
Legend holds that Lord Shiva’s cosmic dance, Tandava,
inspired Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra, a tale cherished in dance schools.
3. Development: Regional Synthesis and Patronage
The medieval period (8th–18th centuries) saw dance forms
diversify under regional patronage. South Indian dynasties like the Cholas
supported Bharatanatyam in temples, while North Indian courts under the Mughals
nurtured Kathak. “Patronage shaped each form’s unique identity,” says Dr. Anita
Ratnam. The Bhakti movement enriched dances with devotional themes, as seen in
Manipuri’s Rasleela.
The 18th century saw shifts as Mughal power declined, with
princely states like Tanjore and Jaipur becoming new hubs. “Royal courts
transformed dance into a performative art,” notes guru Yamini Krishnamurthy.
Colonial rule disrupted temple traditions, branding devadasis as “nautch”
dancers, but 20th-century revivalists like Rukmini Devi Arundale and Vallathol
Narayana Menon restored their prestige. “Revivalists reclaimed dance as India’s
soul,” says Dr. Padma Subrahmanyam.
Chola-era bronze sculptures of dancing Shiva, housed in
Chennai’s Government Museum, reflect Bharatanatyam’s antiquity.
Mughal emperor Akbar, captivated by a Kathak performance,
reportedly gifted the dancer a golden anklet, a story preserved in Lucknow’s
kathak lore.
4. Glory Years: The Golden Age of Dance
The 10th to 18th centuries marked Indian dance’s zenith,
centered in temples and courts. Chola and Pandya temples hosted Bharatanatyam
performances, while Vijayanagara courts patronized Kuchipudi. “Temples were the
cradle of classical dance,” says guru Vempati Chinna Satyam. In the North,
Mughal courts elevated Kathak, with dancers narrating Persian and Hindu tales.
The 17th-century Tanjore court under Maratha rulers refined
Bharatanatyam’s repertoire, introducing the margam format. “Tanjore gave
Bharatanatyam its modern structure,” says guru Leela Samson. Similarly,
Jaipur’s courts shaped Kathak’s intricate footwork. “Kathak’s rhythmic
brilliance flourished under Rajput patronage,” says guru Birju Maharaj. These
years saw inclusivity, with Hindu and Muslim dancers collaborating, as noted by
Dr. Sonal Mansingh: “Dance transcended cultural boundaries.”
A Tanjore devadasi’s performance of Alarippu reportedly
moved King Serfoji II to compose a poem in her honor, preserved in Tanjore’s
archives.
Inscriptions in Brihadeeswara Temple detail devadasi
endowments, confirming their role.
5. Major Dance Forms: Styles and Traditions
Indian classical dance comprises eight recognized forms,
each with distinct aesthetics, techniques, and cultural contexts, preserved
through guru-shishya traditions. “Each form is a unique lens on India’s soul,”
says guru Mrinalini Sarabhai. Below is a detailed exploration:
- Bharatanatyam:
Originating in Tamil Nadu’s temples, it is known for geometric precision,
rhythmic footwork (adavus), and expressive abhinaya. “Bharatanatyam is a
dialogue with the divine,” says Rukmini Devi Arundale. Its margam includes
Alarippu (invocation), Varnam (narrative), and Tillana (pure dance),
performed to Carnatic music. Revived in the 1930s by Arundale’s
Kalakshetra, it emphasizes aramandi (half-sit posture) and mudras like
pataka. Exponents: Balasaraswati, Yamini Krishnamurthy. Anecdote:
Balasaraswati’s Varnam performance in 1950s Chennai reportedly left
audiences spellbound, a story from Kalakshetra’s archives.
- Kathak:
Rooted in North India’s storytelling traditions, it blends Hindu and
Persian elements, known for intricate footwork (tatkar), spins (chakkars),
and narrative abhinaya. “Kathak is poetry in motion,” says Birju Maharaj.
Performed to Hindustani music, it includes Thumri-based expressions and
rhythmic compositions like tukras. Flourishing in Lucknow, Jaipur, and
Banaras gharanas, it was revived by Lady Leela Sokhey. Exponents: Sitara
Devi, Shovana Narayan. Anecdote: Sitara Devi’s Kathak in a 1940s Mughal-e-Azam
set earned her the title “Nritya Samragni.”
- Odissi:
From Odisha’s temples, it is characterized by fluid tribhangi (three-bend)
postures, lyrical movements, and devotional themes. “Odissi is a
sculptural prayer,” says Kelucharan Mohapatra. Its repertoire includes
Mangalacharan (invocation) and Pallavi (pure dance), set to Odissi music.
Revived in the 1950s by gurus like Pankaj Charan Das, it draws from
Gotipua traditions. Exponents: Sanjukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh.
Anecdote: Sanjukta Panigrahi’s Odissi at Konark’s Sun Temple in 1970s was
said to mirror its sculptures.
- Kuchipudi:
Originating in Andhra Pradesh’s Krishna district, it combines dance and
drama, known for dynamic footwork and narrative roles. “Kuchipudi is a
theatrical celebration,” says Vempati Chinna Satyam. Its repertoire
includes Tarangam (dancing on a brass plate) and Yakshagana-inspired
plays, set to Carnatic music. Revived by Vedantam Lakshminarayana Sastry,
it emphasizes agility. Exponents: Raja-Radha Reddy, Swapnasundari.
Anecdote: Raja Reddy’s Tarangam in 1980s Delhi left audiences awestruck, a
tale from Natya Tarangini.
- Manipuri:
From Manipur, it is known for its gentle, lyrical movements and
Vaishnavite themes, particularly Rasleela. “Manipuri is devotion in
motion,” says Guru Bipin Singh. Performed to Manipuri music, it emphasizes
lasya (feminine grace) and circular patterns. Revived by Jhaveri sisters,
it draws from Lai Haraoba rituals. Exponents: Darshana Jhaveri, Elam
Endira Devi. Anecdote: Bipin Singh’s Rasleela in 1960s Imphal reportedly
moved devotees to tears.
- Kathakali:
Kerala’s dramatic dance form, it features elaborate costumes, facial
expressions, and mythological narratives. “Kathakali is a living epic,”
says Guru Kottakkal Sivaraman. Performed to Sopanam music, it includes
Attakatha (dance-dramas) and mudras like kathi. Revived by Vallathol
Narayana Menon’s Kerala Kalamandalam, it emphasizes male roles. Exponents:
Kalamandalam Gopi, Sadanam Krishnankutty. Anecdote: Gopi’s Arjuna in 1970s
Kerala was said to embody the Mahabharata hero.
- Mohiniyattam:
Kerala’s feminine dance, it is known for its graceful sways and lasya
style, evoking shringara. “Mohiniyattam is a gentle seduction,” says Guru
Kanak Rele. Performed to Carnatic music, it includes Cholkettu (pure
dance) and Padams (expressive pieces). Revived by Kalamandalam
Kalyanikutty Amma, it emphasizes flowing movements. Exponents: Bharati
Shivaji, Neena Prasad. Anecdote: Kalyanikutty Amma’s Mohiniyattam in 1950s
Trivandrum revived its temple legacy.
- Sattriya:
From Assam’s Vaishnavite monasteries, it combines dance and drama,
focusing on Krishna bhakti. “Sattriya is a monk’s devotion,” says Guru
Ghanakanta Bora. Performed to Borgeet music, it includes Ankiya Nat plays
and Ojapali-inspired movements. Recognized as classical in 2000, it was
preserved by Sankaradeva’s sattras. Exponents: Indira P. P. Bora, Anita
Sharma. Anecdote: Bora’s Sattriya at a 2000s Guwahati festival earned it
national acclaim.
Kalakshetra’s archives document Bharatanatyam’s revival,
while Kerala Kalamandalam preserves Kathakali manuscripts.
6. Philosophical Foundations: Rasa, Spirituality, and
Aesthetics
Indian dance is steeped in the Natyashastra’s rasa theory,
aiming to evoke emotions like shringara, karuna, or adbhuta (wonder). “Each
mudra and movement stirs a specific rasa,” says Dr. Padma Subrahmanyam. For
instance, Bharatanatyam’s Varnam evokes devotion, while Kathak’s Thumri
expresses longing. Spirituality is central, with dance as a path to moksha.
“Dance is my offering to the divine,” says Sonal Mansingh.
Bhakti and Vaishnavite traditions enrich this ethos, as seen
in Manipuri’s Rasleela or Sattriya’s Krishna tales. “Dance transcends the
material, touching the eternal,” says Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra. The
guru-shishya tradition embodies this spiritual bond, with Leela Samson noting,
“The guru imparts not just technique but a way of being.” Aesthetic principles
like angika (body movement) and sattvika (emotional authenticity) prioritize
expression over mere virtuosity.
Sanjukta Panigrahi’s Odissi performance of “Dasavatara”
reportedly left audiences in a meditative trance, a story from Bhubaneswar’s
dance circles.
7. Economic Dimensions: Patronage, Survival, and Modern
Realities
Historically, Indian dance thrived on temple and royal
patronage. “Chola kings and Mughal emperors sustained dancers,” says Dr.
Arshiya Sethi. Temples provided endowments, while courts offered stipends.
Colonial rule disrupted this, marginalizing devadasis. “The British stigmatized
dance as immoral,” notes Dr. Avanthi Meduri.
The 20th century saw revival through public patronage.
Rukmini Devi’s Kalakshetra (1936) and Vallathol’s Kerala Kalamandalam (1930)
institutionalized training. “Revivalists made dance respectable again,” says
guru Alarmel Valli. Today, festivals like Khajuraho and institutions like
Sangeet Natak Akademi support artists. However, economic challenges persist.
“Many dancers teach or perform commercially to survive,” says Shovana Narayan.
Digital platforms like YouTube offer revenue but risk commodification.
Kalakshetra trains over 200 students annually, blending
tradition with modern funding.
Balasaraswati once performed for free to preserve
Bharatanatyam’s sanctity, a tale from her disciples.
8. Exponents: Icons of Movement and Expression
Indian dance’s luminaries have shaped its legacy. Rukmini
Devi Arundale revived Bharatanatyam, while Vallathol Narayana Menon restored
Kathakali. “Rukmini Devi gave Bharatanatyam global wings,” says Leela Samson.
Kathak’s Birju Maharaj, with his rhythmic brilliance, and Odissi’s Kelucharan
Mohapatra, with his lyrical choreography, redefined their forms. “Birju
Maharaj’s Kathak is a rhythmic poem,” says Saswati Sen.
Contemporary artists like Alarmel Valli (Bharatanatyam),
Sonal Mansingh (Odissi), and Mallika Sarabhai (Bharatanatyam-Kuchipudi) blend
tradition with social themes. “Dance must speak to today’s world,” says Mallika
Sarabhai. Younger dancers like Aditi Mangaldas (Kathak) and Rama Vaidyanathan
(Bharatanatyam) continue this legacy.
Birju Maharaj’s impromptu Kathak at a 1980s Delhi festival,
narrating Krishna’s flute, left audiences mesmerized, as recounted by his
disciple Saswati Sen.
Sangeet Natak Akademi awards, given to gurus like Mohapatra,
affirm their contributions.
9. Interplays: Forms, Techniques, and Innovations
Indian dance forms vary in technique: Bharatanatyam’s
angular precision contrasts with Odissi’s fluid curves, while Kathak’s footwork
complements Manipuri’s grace. “Each form has a unique vocabulary,” says guru
Kanak Rele. Common elements include mudras, tala-based rhythms, and abhinaya,
rooted in Natyashastra.
Innovations include contemporary choreography and fusion.
Shyamala Balakrishnan’s Bharatanatyam on environmental themes and Astad Deboo’s
fusion with modern dance explore new horizons. “Fusion keeps dance dynamic,”
says Deboo. Collaborations with music, theatre, and technology, like digital
performances, enhance accessibility. “Technology amplifies our reach,” says
Rama Vaidyanathan.
Aditi Mangaldas’s Kathak fusion with flamenco in Spain in
2010s bridged Indian and Western rhythms, a story from her global tours.
Chennai’s Margazhi festival archives showcase fusion
experiments.
10. Current State: Global Resonance and Future Pathways
Indian classical dance thrives globally, performed at venues
like London’s Southbank Centre and New York’s Lincoln Center. “Dance’s
emotional power is universal,” says Alarmel Valli. Festivals like Konark Dance
Festival and Natya Kala Conference draw thousands, while platforms like YouTube
reach millions. Institutions like Nrityagram and SPIC SRA promote education.
Challenges include commercialization and limited funding.
“We must preserve dance’s sanctity,” warns Sonal Mansingh. Fusion and
contemporary forms by artists like Akram Khan and Navtej Johar keep the
tradition relevant. “Innovation engages new audiences,” says Johar.
The 2023 Khajuraho festival attracted 15,000 attendees, with
streams reaching 80,000 viewers.
Alarmel Valli’s Bharatanatyam in Paris in 2022 moved a
French critic to call it “poetry in motion.”
Reflection:
Indian classical dance is a living testament to India’s
cultural and spiritual depth, a rhythmic dialogue between the human and the
divine. From temple rituals to global stages, it weaves movement, music, and
emotion into a timeless narrative. Its essence—mudras evoking rasa, rhythms
grounding tala, and abhinaya sparking storytelling—mirrors life’s cyclical
beauty. As I reflect on its journey, I am struck by its resilience, adapting
through centuries while preserving its sacred core.
Each form, from Bharatanatyam’s elegance to Sattriya’s
devotion, reflects India’s diversity, united by shared roots in the
Natyashastra. The guru-shishya tradition, a sacred bond, sustains this legacy,
as seen in the work of Rukmini Devi and Birju Maharaj. Exponents, past and
present, embody dance’s transformative power, their performances resonating
with spiritual and cultural depth. Economically, the shift from patronage to
public platforms has democratized access but introduced challenges, urging sustainable
models.
Philosophically, dance’s pursuit of rasa and moksha offers a
sanctuary of meaning in a fragmented world. Anecdotes, like Sanjukta
Panigrahi’s trance-inducing Odissi or Balasaraswati’s soulful Bharatanatyam,
reveal its capacity to transcend the mundane. The global embrace of Indian
dance, amplified by technology, signals its universal appeal, yet risks
diluting its authenticity. As Mrinalini Sarabhai said, “Dance is the soul’s
language, understood by all.”
The challenge lies in nurturing dancers economically while
safeguarding the art’s sanctity. Indian dance invites us to move with
intention, to feel existence’s rhythm, and to connect with the divine. Its
future rests on our commitment to its roots and openness to its wings, ensuring
its eternal rhythm continues to inspire.
References
- Vatsyayan,
Kapila. Indian Classical Dance. Publications Division, 1974.
- Kothari,
Sunil. Bharatanatyam. Marg Publications, 2000.
- Subrahmanyam,
Padma. Natyashastra and National Unity. Rashtriya Sanskrit
Sansthan, 1997.
- Meduri,
Avanthi. Rukmini Devi Arundale and the Making of Bharatanatyam.
Motilal Banarsidass, 2005.
- Sethi,
Arshiya. Indian Classical Dance: Tradition in Transition. Roli
Books, 2008.
- Samson,
Leela. Rhythm in Joy: Classical Indian Dance Traditions. Lustre
Press, 1987.
- Indian
Classical Dances - www.culturalindia.net
- Indian
Classical Dance - Wikipedia
- The
Eight Classical Dance Forms of India - www.indianetzone.com
- (PDF)
Indian Classical Dance: A Historical Perspective - www.researchgate.net
- Documentaries:
The Dancing Gods (2010), Kathak: The Dance of Storytellers
(2005).
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