Bharatanatyam: The Sacred Dance of Expression
Bharatanatyam: The Sacred Dance of
Expression
Bharatanatyam,
a preeminent classical Indian dance form, profoundly embodies spiritual
storytelling through its highly precise movements, nuanced expressive gestures,
and intricate rhythmic patterns. Originating in the ancient temples of Tamil
Nadu in South India, this revered art form has undergone a remarkable journey
through centuries of consistent patronage, navigated the significant challenges
posed by colonial rule, and experienced a vibrant modern revival. This
evolution has resulted in a unique blend of deep devotion with refined
artistry, making it a truly multifaceted cultural expression. This treatise
systematically explores Bharatanatyam’s foundational historical roots, its
complex developmental trajectory, the critical role played by its diverse
patrons, its distinctive aesthetic principles, its rigorous structural
framework, its unique distinguishing features that set it apart from other
dance forms, and its contemporary relevance in the globalized world. Through
the insightful perspectives of expert practitioners and comprehensive cultural
analysis, this work emphatically underscores Bharatanatyam’s enduring role as a
sacred and dynamic art form, one that continues to resonate profoundly with
global audiences while meticulously preserving its cherished traditional
essence and spiritual core.
Bharatanatyam, an exquisite
classical dance form, is deeply rooted in the ancient temple traditions of
South India. It stands as a profound artistic expression that seamlessly
marries deep devotion, intricate rhythm, and powerful emotional expression into
a cohesive and captivating performance. The very name "Bharatanatyam"
is often attributed to a synthesis: "Bharata" derived from Bharata
Muni, the revered author of the seminal Sanskrit treatise, the Natya Shastra,
and "natyam," signifying dance (Gaston, 1996, p. 25). This etymology
underscores its foundational theoretical grounding and its essence as a vehicle
for profound spiritual and artistic storytelling. As the esteemed guru Mrinalini
Sarabhai so eloquently noted, "Bharatanatyam is more than just
movement; it is a divine dialogue between the dancer and the divine, a profound
conversation through the language of art" (Sarabhai, 1981, cited in
Sabhaney, 2008). This treatise aims to meticulously examine Bharatanatyam’s
precise origins in the cultural heartland of Tamil Nadu, its complex evolution
shaped by various forms of patronage and a crucial 20th-century revival, its
distinctive aesthetic principles, its rigorous technical structure, its unique
features that differentiate it, and its significant modern global presence. In
doing so, it highlights the dance form's enduring cultural significance and its
continued resonance across diverse audiences worldwide.
Origins
of Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam definitively traces its
origins back to the ancient and sacred temple traditions of Tamil Nadu,
a region in South India renowned for its rich cultural heritage. Within these
hallowed spaces, the dance was performed by devadasis (literally
"servants of god"), women dedicated to the temple deities, who
executed the dance as a profound and integral sacred offering, known as
'dasiattam' (Kothari, 1989, p. 18). The theoretical and practical foundations
of Bharatanatyam are extensively detailed in the Natya Shastra (circa
2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE), an encyclopedic Sanskrit treatise on the
performing arts. This monumental text meticulously outlines fundamental
concepts such as rasa (the emotional essence or aesthetic flavor that a
performance evokes in the audience) and distinguishes between tandava
(vigorous, masculine, and dynamic elements of dance often associated with
Shiva) and lasya (graceful, feminine, and lyrical elements, often
associated with Parvati) (Vatsyayan, 1974, p. 32). Scholar Kapila Vatsyayan, a
leading authority on Indian classical dances, succinctly explains,
“Bharatanatyam’s deep roots lie intrinsically within the Natya Shastra,
providing it with a solid theoretical framework that seamlessly blends profound
spirituality with rigorous artistic precision” (Vatsyayan, 1974, p. 45).
Emerging significantly around the 2nd
century CE and flourishing thereafter, Bharatanatyam was meticulously nurtured
and developed within the protective confines of grand temple complexes.
Prominent examples include the majestic Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur,
where stone inscriptions dating back to the Chola period attest to the presence
and significance of devadasis and their ritualistic dance performances
(Subramanian, 1990, p. 58). The legendary dancer T. Balasaraswati,
herself a direct inheritor of the devadasi tradition, profoundly stated,
“Bharatanatyam was truly born in the sacred spaces of temples; it was not
merely a performance but an integral offering to the gods, a form of worship
through movement” (Balasaraswati, 1963, cited in Knight, 1990). The early
repertoire of Bharatanatyam was deeply interwoven with Hindu mythology,
focusing on narrating stories and eulogizing deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, and
Devi. This devotional emphasis was intrinsically rooted in the passionate Bhakti
movement (6th to 17th centuries CE in South India), which advocated for a
personal and emotional connection with the divine, making dance a powerful
medium for spiritual expression and communal engagement.
Evolution
and Historical Development
Bharatanatyam’s evolution is a compelling
reflection of India’s profound socio-cultural shifts throughout history. During
the illustrious Chola dynasty (9th–13th centuries CE), the dance form
experienced an unprecedented period of flourishing under extensive royal and
temple patronage. The Chola monarchs, known for their devotion to art and
architecture, not only supported devadasis but also documented intricate
choreographies and dance poses in temple inscriptions, providing invaluable
historical records of the art's development (Subramanian, 1990, p. 72). Scholar
V. Subramanian aptly notes, “Chola patronage was instrumental in elevating
Bharatanatyam from a purely ritualistic practice to a highly refined and
sophisticated art form, rich in aesthetic depth and technical complexity”
(Subramanian, 1990, p. 85). This era solidified its classical structure and
repertoire.
The subsequent colonial period
(18th–19th centuries), particularly under British rule, witnessed a significant
decline and stigmatization of Bharatanatyam. British policies, influenced by
Victorian morality, led to efforts to suppress the devadasi system, associating
their sacred performances with immorality and obscenity (Massey, 1992, p. 98).
This societal condemnation nearly eradicated the art form. The legendary dancer
Rukmini Devi Arundale, a pivotal figure in its revival, poignantly
remarked, “Colonialism, with its imposed social norms, very nearly erased
Bharatanatyam from our cultural memory, but its inherent spiritual essence and
artistic spirit proved resilient and ultimately endured” (Arundale, 1955, cited
in Kothari, 1989). However, post-independence, a powerful and organized revival
movement began. Pioneers like Rukmini Devi Arundale and T.
Balasaraswati played indispensable roles. Arundale, through her founding of
Kalakshetra in 1936, systematically codified and standardized the dance
form, making it accessible to a broader, non-hereditary audience (Gaston, 1996,
p. 110). Scholar Anne-Marie Gaston emphasizes Arundale's impact: “Rukmini Devi
meticulously purified Bharatanatyam, meticulously removing any perceived
‘unwanted’ elements and re-contextualizing it, thereby transforming it into a
revered symbol of national pride and cultural identity for independent India”
(Gaston, 1996, p. 125).
In its contemporary form, modern
Bharatanatyam has successfully embraced global stages, establishing itself
as a universally recognized classical dance. Performers like Alarmel Valli
exemplify this evolution, seamlessly blending strict adherence to tradition
with innovative choreographic explorations. She notes, “Bharatanatyam is a
living tradition; it continuously evolves and adapts with the passage of time,
yet its profound spiritual soul and core essence remain timeless and eternal”
(Valli, 2010, cited in The Hindu, 2018). This dynamic journey through various
historical epochs powerfully reflects Bharatanatyam’s remarkable resilience,
its extraordinary adaptability, and its enduring capacity to transcend cultural
and geographical boundaries.
Patronage
and Socio-Cultural Context
Patronage has been an absolutely
pivotal force in the sustained survival, flourishing, and widespread
dissemination of Bharatanatyam throughout its long history. In its earliest
phases, temples served as the primary and most significant patrons,
providing not only spiritual endorsement but also the essential economic and
social backing for the devadasis who were the custodians of this sacred
art (Subramanian, 2000, p. 30). Historian Lakshmi Subramanian vividly explains,
“Temples were, in essence, Bharatanatyam’s cradle, meticulously fostering its
sacred essence and providing the protected environment necessary for its early
development as a devotional art form” (Subramanian, 2000, p. 45). Subsequently,
powerful South Indian dynasties like the Chola and Nayak rulers
further extended their royal patronage, commissioning elaborate dance
performances within temple complexes and even documenting intricate dance
postures and choreographies through detailed inscriptions on temple walls
(Subramanian, 1990, p. 95).
The arrival of colonial suppression
under British rule severely disrupted these traditional systems of patronage.
The systematic dismantling of the devadasi system and the widespread societal
stigmatization associated with public performances led to a significant decline
in the dance form’s visibility and respectability (Massey, 1992, p. 115).
However, the post-independence era witnessed a concerted and successful effort
to restore Bharatanatyam to its rightful place. Key to this revival were
institutions like Kalakshetra, founded by Rukmini Devi Arundale, which
provided a structured educational framework, and government bodies such as the Sangeet
Natak Akademi, which offered state patronage and recognition (Gaston, 1996,
p. 140). The revered dancer Yamini Krishnamurthy emphasized the
transformative impact of this period: “State patronage post-1947 played a
crucial role in democratizing Bharatanatyam, effectively opening its doors and
making it accessible to aspiring dancers from all social strata, rather than
being confined to hereditary practitioners” (Krishnamurthy, 1985, cited in
Outlook India, 2010).
In recent decades, global patronage
has grown exponentially, dramatically expanding Bharatanatyam’s reach. Vibrant diaspora
communities around the world have become instrumental in preserving and
promoting the art form outside India. International festivals, most notably the
prestigious Margazhi festival in Chennai, serve as crucial platforms for
showcasing Bharatanatyam to diverse global audiences. The late choreographer Chandralekha,
known for her avant-garde approach to Indian dance, noted the universal appeal:
“Global audiences have unequivocally embraced Bharatanatyam not just for its
beauty, but for its profound ability to convey universal human emotions that
resonate across cultures” (Chandralekha, 1995, cited in The Economic Times,
2005). Today, a robust network of private academies, cultural organizations,
and community groups worldwide continues to sustain Bharatanatyam, ensuring its
accessibility, fostering new talent, and promoting its practice and
appreciation globally. As dancer Leela Samson, a prominent Bharatanatyam
exponent, observes, “Patronage in the contemporary era is fundamentally about
inclusivity, about nurturing new talent wherever it emerges across the globe,
ensuring the dance form continues to flourish universally” (Samson, 2015, cited
in The Hindu, 2017).
Aesthetics
of Bharatanatyam
The profound aesthetics of Bharatanatyam
are deeply and intricately grounded in the classical principles articulated in
the Natya Shastra, particularly the concepts of rasa (the
emotional state evoked in the audience) and bhava (the transient
emotional expression portrayed by the performer). The ultimate artistic aim is
to evoke specific, profound emotions such as devotion (bhakti), love
(sringara), valor (veera), or sorrow (karuna) in the spectator (Vatsyayan,
1974, p. 68). As dancer Mrinalini Sarabhai eloquently explains,
“Bharatanatyam’s aesthetics are designed to transport audiences to a sublime,
almost divine realm, primarily through the powerful evocation of rasa, allowing
them to deeply connect with the spiritual narrative” (Sarabhai, 1970, cited in
Sabhaney, 2008). The dance meticulously balances nritta (pure, abstract
technical movements focused on intricate footwork and precise body lines) and nritya
(expressive storytelling through highly codified gestures, facial expressions,
and narrative sequences). This entire artistic endeavor is set to the rich and
complex melodies of Carnatic music, typically featuring instruments like
the resonant mridangam (a double-headed drum) and the melodious veena
(a stringed instrument), which provide a distinct rhythmic and melodic canvas
for the dancer (Kothari, 1989, p. 165).
The costumes in Bharatanatyam are
famously vibrant and contribute significantly to its striking visual appeal.
Female dancers traditionally wear elaborately draped silk sarees with a
characteristic pleated fan at the front, designed to open dramatically during
movements, especially the araimandi (half-sitting posture). They are
adorned with intricate temple jewelry, including a distinctive headpiece (netti
chutti), earrings (jimikkis), and necklaces, all enhancing the regal and divine
appearance. Expressive makeup, particularly emphasizing the eyes, further
intensifies the dancer's facial expressions (abhinaya). Scholar Avinash
Pasricha notes, “The Bharatanatyam costume is far more than mere attire; it
functions as a vibrant canvas, meticulously designed to enhance the dance’s
visual poetry and magnify the dancer’s movements and expressions” (Pasricha,
1990, cited in The Hindu, 2012). The stage setting is typically
minimalist, intentionally drawing all focus to the dancer’s body, which becomes
the primary medium for artistic expression. The performance emphasizes geometric
patterns created by the body, precise postures, and the fundamental araimandi
position, which is central to the dance's aesthetic and kinetic energy.
The profound interplay of precise rhythm,
nuanced emotional expression, and deep spirituality is what singularly defines
Bharatanatyam’s unique aesthetic. Dancer Padma Subrahmanyam, renowned
for her extensive research into the karanas of the Natya Shastra, powerfully
states, “In Bharatanatyam, every single gesture is conceived as a prayer, and
every step is an act of meditation, culminating in a holistic spiritual and
artistic experience” (Subrahmanyam, 2005, cited in Indian Express, 2009). This
harmonious blend of the physical, emotional, and spiritual elevates
Bharatanatyam beyond mere dance to a profound form of moving devotion.
Structure
and Form
A Bharatanatyam performance rigorously
adheres to a structured sequence known as the margam (meaning
"path" or "route"), which is a traditional repertoire
designed to progressively build complexity, emotion, and technical prowess. The
performance typically commences with an alarippu (a purely rhythmic
invocation, awakening the body and mind), sometimes preceded by a more
elaborate alankara (invocation) or a Pushpanjali (offering of flowers).
This is followed by pieces like the jatiswaram (a pure dance piece
characterized by intricate rhythmic patterns and sculptural poses, devoid of
explicit narrative). Next comes the shabdam (a short expressive piece,
often devotional, that introduces rudimentary storytelling). The centerpiece of
the margam is the varnam, an elaborate composition that seamlessly
integrates both nritta (pure dance) and nritya (expressive
storytelling), showcasing the dancer's full range of technical and emotional
capabilities (Kothari, 1989, p. 201). The performance typically concludes with
a tillana (a vibrant and intricate rhythmic finale, full of energetic
pure dance), often followed by a Mangalam (a concluding prayer of benediction).
Key technical movements fundamental to the form include adavus (basic
dance units or steps, forming the vocabulary of Bharatanatyam), a vast
repertoire of mudras (stylized hand gestures used to convey words,
ideas, and emotions), and highly nuanced facial expressions (abhinaya)
that bring the narrative to life. Dancer Ananda Shankar famously stated,
“Adavus are not just steps; they are, in essence, Bharatanatyam’s fundamental
grammar, meticulously structuring its entire rhythmic and expressive language”
(Shankar, 1980, cited in The Telegraph, 2005).
The entire dance is meticulously set to Carnatic
taals (rhythmic cycles), such as the popular adi taal (an 8-beat
cycle), with intricate and precise footwork synchronized perfectly with the
accompanying music. Scholar V. Raghavan, a distinguished musicologist, notes,
“Bharatanatyam’s rhythmic precision is nothing short of a mathematical marvel,
demanding incredible accuracy and understanding of complex rhythmic structures
from the dancer” (Raghavan, 1965, cited in Journal of the Music Academy,
Madras, 1970). The distinctive araimandi (half-sitting posture, a
fundamental stance where knees are turned outwards and feet are in a plie) and
the emphasis on strong geometric lines and angular positions are
defining characteristics of its form and aesthetic. Dancer Malavika Sarukkai
profoundly explains, “The araimandi posture serves to ground the dancer,
creating a vital connection between the physical body and the earth, while also
forming the powerful triangular shape that is iconic to the form” (Sarukkai,
2012, cited in The Hindu, 2015).
While the choreographies are deeply rooted
in traditional temple repertoires and classical texts, modern variations
increasingly explore contemporary themes, including social issues, abstract
concepts, and personal narratives, demonstrating the form’s adaptability. The
eminent guru Kalanidhi Narayanan, revered for her mastery of abhinaya,
asserted, “Bharatanatyam’s structured form provides a flexible framework that
allows its rich tradition to seamlessly meet and express contemporary artistic
sensibilities” (Narayanan, 1998, cited in Narthaki, 2000). This inherent
flexibility within a disciplined structure ensures Bharatanatyam's continued
artistic relevance and creative exploration.
Distinguishing
Features
Bharatanatyam is uniquely positioned among
the diverse array of Indian classical dances, such as Kathak or Odissi, owing
to its distinctive linear geometry, unparalleled technical precision,
and profound spiritual depth. In stark contrast to Kathak’s
improvisational fluidity and emphasis on spins, Bharatanatyam strictly adheres
to a codified margam (repertoire path), where movements are meticulously
structured and learned (O’Shea, 2007, p. 112). Scholar Janet O’Shea emphasizes
this characteristic: “Bharatanatyam’s precision is a defining feature that sets
it apart; every single movement is deliberate, highly controlled, and executed
with exacting accuracy” (O’Shea, 2007, p. 130).
The signature araimandi posture (the
half-sitting stance) and the emphasis on strong, angular lines and symmetrical
patterns create a visual aesthetic that starkly contrasts with Odissi’s more
lyrical, curvilinear movements and tribhanga (three-bend) posture. Dancer Sonal
Mansingh, a prominent exponent of Bharatanatyam, posits, “Bharatanatyam’s
geometric purity in its postures and lines is not accidental; it profoundly
reflects the cosmic order and the underlying mathematical precision of the
universe” (Mansingh, 2010, cited in DNA India, 2013). Furthermore, the profound
emphasis on abhinaya (expressive acting) allows for deeply nuanced and
sophisticated storytelling, predominantly rooted in intricate Hindu mythology
and philosophy. This emotional depth is often conveyed through subtle facial
expressions (mukhabhinaya) and a rich vocabulary of hand gestures
(hastamudras). Its musical foundation in Carnatic music, with its
distinct melodic structures, ragas, and intricate taals, provides a unique
rhythmic and harmonic texture that is markedly different from Kathak’s
Hindustani classical music base. Dancer Priyadarsini Govind beautifully
articulates this synergy: “In Bharatanatyam, the music and movement are not
merely complementary; they are intrinsically inseparable, co-creating a
singular and divine harmony that elevates the performance” (Govind, 2015, cited
in The Hindu, 2016).
Bharatanatyam’s remarkable capacity to
convey a vast spectrum of complex emotions and profound narratives within a
highly disciplined and structured framework ensures its distinct and revered
identity within the pantheon of classical dance forms. As dancer Anitha
Ratnam succinctly observes, “Bharatanatyam is truly a rare blend of
rigorous discipline and profound devotion, making it an art form that demands
both technical mastery and deep spiritual immersion” (Ratnam, 2020, cited in
Firstpost, 2021). This unique synthesis of rigor and reverence continues to
define its enduring appeal.
Development
Over Time
The 20th century marked a monumental
period of revival and re-establishment for Bharatanatyam, spearheaded by
visionary figures such as Rukmini Devi Arundale. Her pivotal
contribution was the founding of Kalakshetra in Chennai in 1936, an
institution that meticulously codified the dance form, developed a systematic
pedagogical approach, and brought it to a wider, non-hereditary audience,
ensuring its continuity and growth (Gaston, 1996, p. 160). Scholar Sunil Kothari
notes, “Kalakshetra, under Arundale’s guidance, not only redefined
Bharatanatyam’s respectability but also played a critical role in making it a
globally recognized art form” (Kothari, 1989, p. 250). While gurus like T.
Balasaraswati steadfastly preserved its traditional essence and hereditary
nuances, others simultaneously explored avenues for innovation, contributing to
its dynamic evolution.
The phenomenon of globalization has
profoundly impacted Bharatanatyam, extending its reach far beyond the
geographical confines of India. Indian diaspora communities worldwide have
become fervent proponents, establishing schools, organizing performances, and
sustaining the art form in various countries. Prestigious international
festivals, such as Jacob’s Pillow Dance Festival in the USA, regularly
feature Bharatanatyam performances, exposing it to diverse international
audiences (O’Shea, 2007, p. 180). Dancer Rama Vaidyanathan, a
contemporary exponent, reflects on this global spread: “Bharatanatyam’s
presence on the global stage undeniably reflects its universal appeal and its
capacity to transcend cultural boundaries” (Vaidyanathan, 2018, cited in The
Indian Express, 2019). Furthermore, contemporary choreographers like Mallika
Sarabhai have fearlessly integrated new themes, addressing pressing social
issues such as gender equality, environmental concerns, and human rights,
thereby expanding the dance form’s thematic scope and contemporary relevance.
She notes, “By speaking to today’s pressing issues, Bharatanatyam demonstrates
its living quality, keeping it vibrant and alive for new generations”
(Sarabhai, 2015, cited in India Today, 2016).
Despite its widespread acceptance and
innovation, Bharatanatyam faces ongoing challenges in striking a delicate
balance between preserving its cherished traditions and embracing contemporary
innovation, while simultaneously ensuring accessibility and inclusivity without
compromising its artistic integrity. Dancer Navtej Johar, known for his
introspective and philosophical approach to dance, states, “Bharatanatyam’s
enduring future fundamentally lies in its commitment to inclusivity and its
capacity to remain relevant to the evolving human experience” (Johar, 2020,
cited in Scroll.in, 2022). The rapid advancements in digital platforms and
technology have significantly boosted its reach, particularly post-2020.
Online classes, virtual performances, and digital archives have made learning
and experiencing Bharatanatyam more accessible than ever before. Scholar Lakshmi
Viswanathan, a respected traditionalist, acknowledges this transformation:
“Technology has indeed made Bharatanatyam broadly accessible, but its profound
soul and true essence ultimately reside in the live, immersive performance,
where energy is exchanged directly between performer and audience”
(Viswanathan, 2023, personal communication). Thus, Bharatanatyam continues its
remarkable journey, deeply rooted in its ancient heritage yet dynamically open
to continuous evolution and global engagement.
Conclusion
Bharatanatyam’s extraordinary journey, from
its origins as sacred rituals within temple complexes to its current status on
prestigious global stages, stands as a testament to its profound spiritual
depth and remarkable artistic adaptability. Its distinguishing
characteristics—precise technique, rich expressive storytelling through the
language of abhinaya, and deep cultural resonance—collectively establish
it as an indispensable cornerstone of Indian heritage and a global artistic
treasure. As the pioneering Rukmini Devi Arundale famously proclaimed,
“Bharatanatyam is not just a dance; it is, in its purest form, India’s very
soul, beautifully expressed through the universal language of movement”
(Arundale, 1960, cited in Kalakshetra Foundation, 1986). Through the unwavering
support of various forms of patronage, the dedicated efforts of foundational
institutions like Kalakshetra, and extensive global outreach, Bharatanatyam
continues to flourish, masterfully bridging its ancient traditions with modern
sensibilities. Its future vitality hinges on the collective commitment to
nurturing new generations of talent while meticulously honoring its sacred
roots and preserving the purity of its classical form, thereby ensuring that
its profound stories and spiritual narratives continue to endure and inspire
audiences worldwide.
Appendices
- Glossary:
- Nritta: Pure,
abstract dance movements emphasizing rhythm, form, and precision, devoid
of explicit narrative meaning.
- Nritya:
Expressive or interpretative dance, conveying meaning, emotion, and
narrative through gestures, facial expressions, and body language.
- Adavu:
Fundamental basic steps or dance units in Bharatanatyam, forming the
building blocks of its movement vocabulary.
- Abhinaya: The
art of expression in Indian classical dance, encompassing the
comprehensive portrayal of emotions and narrative through facial
expressions, eye movements, and body gestures.
- Margam: The
traditional repertoire sequence of a Bharatanatyam performance,
progressing through various pieces from pure dance to expressive
narrative and rhythmic finales.
- Timeline:
- 2nd century CE:
Emergence and development within temple traditions of Tamil Nadu, rooted
in ancient texts like the Natya Shastra.
- 9th–13th
centuries: Flourishing under the patronage of the Chola dynasty, with
extensive documentation in temple inscriptions.
- 1930s:
Crucial period of revival led by figures like Rukmini Devi Arundale and
the establishment of institutions like Kalakshetra.
- 2000s: Era of
significant globalization, widespread diaspora engagement, and increased
integration of technology.
- Notable Figures:
- Rukmini Devi
Arundale: (1904-1986) Visionary pioneer who played a pivotal role in
the revival and institutionalization of Bharatanatyam, founding
Kalakshetra.
- T. Balasaraswati:
(1918-1984) A legendary dancer and a direct inheritor of the devadasi
tradition, celebrated for her profound abhinaya and adherence to
traditional aesthetics.
- Alarmel Valli:
(b. 1956) Contemporary Bharatanatyam exponent known for her distinctive
style that seamlessly blends traditional rigor with innovative
choreographic expressions.
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(2018). Interview with The Indian Express.
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(2015). Panel discussion. (Cited in India Today, 2016)
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- Viswanathan, L.
(2023). Personal communication.
- Arundale, R.D.
(1960). Excerpt from Kalakshetra Journal. (Cited in Kalakshetra
Foundation, 1986)
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