The Evolution of Public Mass Transport Systems: Ideology, Asphalt, and the Absurdity of Human Choice

The Evolution of Public Mass Transport Systems: Ideology, Asphalt, and the Absurdity of Human Choice (1945–2025)

 

 

The Great Fork in the Tracks – When Humanity Had One Shot to Rebuild the World and Chose Parking Lots, Palaces, or Precision

“After Hiroshima and Dresden, after Stalingrad and Coventry, the world stood on a rubble-strewn stage with a blank script. We could have written a tragedy of isolation or a comedy of connection. Most nations chose the parking lot.” — Enrique Peñalosa, former Mayor of Bogotá, TEDGlobal, 2018

It is 11:07 PM IST, November 11, 2025. In Tokyo, the last Yamanote Line loop slips out of Shibuya at 23:59:56, kisses Shinjuku at 00:06:03—three seconds early. JR East triggers a national apology cascade: stationmaster bows, NHK flashes a chyron, the official X account posts in perfect keigo:

「誠に申し訳ございません。次回は定刻通りに参ります。」 (“We sincerely apologize. Next time we will be on time.”) The tweet gets 1.2 million likes. A salaryman in Osaka replies: “I feel seen.”

In Los Angeles, the Metro E Line is 87 minutes late because a Waymo AV decided the tunnel was a parallel-parking challenge. In Warsaw, a 1975 Pafawag tram—still wheezing on Soviet relays—clatters past a Tesla Supercharger; the driver lights a cigarette with one hand, steers with the other, and live-streams the delay to 47 viewers. In Manchester, a Stagecoach double-decker lurches in 31 minutes late; the driver blames “the algorithm having a mid-life crisis.” In Delhi, someone is marooned in an Uber, tweeting into the void:

“Japan: trains apologize. India: potholes apologize. America: traffic is the apology. Germany: ‘Here’s your €9 ticket and a pretzel.’ Britain: ‘Here’s your £9 ticket and a strike.’”

This is not randomness. This is institutional DNA, forged in the crucible of 1945.

The war ended with 50 million dead, 70% of European rail infrastructure vaporized, 90% of Japan’s urban housing stock reduced to charcoal, and the United States untouched—its factories humming, its GDP 50% of the world’s total. The Soviet Union, having lost 27 million lives, stretched from the Elbe to the Pacific. Britain, bankrupt but proud, still ruled a quarter of humanity.

 

The question was simple: How do we move people? The answers were gloriously, catastrophically human.

• America chose the private automobile—a steel chariot for the nuclear family, subsidized by highways, oil, and the GI Bill. Freedom, baby.
• The Soviet Bloc chose the metro as cathedral, the tram as sacrament, mobility as a constitutional right. Equality, comrade.
• Western Europe chose the welfare contract: capitalism with a conscience, density with dignity. Solidarity, mes amis.
• Britain chose half-measures, nationalization followed by amputation, privatization followed by regret. Muddling through, old chap.
• Japan chose constraint as canvas, turning 72 million people on four narrow islands into a symphony of punctuality. Harmony, ね.
• Germany chose engineering as redemption, rebuilding not just tracks, but a national psyche around reliability. Ordnung, natürlich.

Eighty years later, the numbers are brutal—and hilarious in their honesty:

Region	Urban Public Transport Mode Share (2024)	Intercity Rail Market Share	Population Density (pax/km²)	Annual Transit Subsidy per Capita (USD, incl. externalities)	Daily Metro Riders (millions, select cities)	Punctuality (%)	National Apology Trigger
USA	5.1% (APTA)	0.4% (Amtrak)	36	$1,020 ($42 cash)	NYC 5.5, Chicago 0.6, LA 0.3	82 (NYC Subway)	Never
Former Socialist Bloc (avg.)	28% (EBRD)	12%	80	$312	Moscow 7.1, Warsaw 1.2, Prague 1.6	91	Only if you’re late by a decade
Western Europe	22% (UITP)	11%	180	$620	Paris 4.2, Berlin 1.8, Madrid 2.1	94	If the pretzel is cold
Britain	10% (DfT)	8%	280	$485	London 4.8 (Tube only)	76	“Leaves on the line”
Japan (Kanto)	51% (MLIT)	29%	6,200	$1,110	Tokyo 9.8 (JR + private + metro)	99.9	3 seconds early
Germany	25% (VDV)	12%	230	$680	Berlin 1.8, Munich 1.1, Hamburg 0.9	95.2	If the train is 5:59 late

These are not statistics. These are scar tissue—and punchlines.

This treatise is not about trains. It is about mindsets—how ideology calcified into steel and concrete, how welfare socialism bred entitlement, how American individualism bred contempt for the commons, how Japan turned scarcity into virtuosity, how Germany turned guilt into Taktfahrplan, how Britain dithered, and how, in 2025, four new horsemen—climate collapse, AI gridlock, demographic inversion, and the zombie of ideology—threaten to derail us all.

“We didn’t just build transport systems. We built narratives about who deserves to move, how, and at whose expense.” — Taras Grescoe, Straphanger (2012)

 

 

I. The United States: The Kingdom of the Car and the Cult of “Freedom”

“America didn’t ignore public transit. It actively murdered it—and called it progress.” — Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961)

1945–1960: The Great Streetcar Massacre – A Conspiracy So Blatant It Got a $5,000 Fine

Picture this: 46 U.S. cities with electric streetcar networks—1,500 miles in LA alone. By 1960: five. The culprit? National City Lines—a shell company for General Motors, Firestone, Standard Oil, and Mack Trucks. They bought systems in Los Angeles, Baltimore, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Oakland, Newark—and ripped out the tracks. The 1949 antitrust conviction? GM fined $5,000. Adjusted for inflation: $63,000 in 2025 dollars. That’s less than one Cybertruck tire.

“We replaced 100-mile streetcar networks with 100-mile traffic jams. And we called it efficiency.” — Peter Norton, Fighting Traffic (2008)

Meanwhile, the Interstate Highway Act (1956) poured $119 billion (1956 USD = $1.4 trillion today) into 41,000 miles of asphalt. Transit funding? Zero. Los Angeles’ Pacific Electric Red Car: 1,100 miles, 3.5 million daily riders in 1925. By 1961: gone. Today, the Metro A Line (48 miles) carries 68,000 daily—and takes 90 minutes. The Red Car did it in 60. Progress!

1960–1990: The Oil Shock That Wasn’t – Because Who Needs Planning?

1973: OPEC embargo. Gas jumps from 36¢ to $1.20. Transit ridership spikes 30% nationwide. Then… crickets. The Urban Mass Transportation Act (1964) promised “balanced transport.” By 1980, transit got 1.3% of federal surface spending. Highways: 83%.

“We treated oil shocks like hiccups, not heart attacks.” — Robert Cervero, UC Berkeley, The Transit Metropolis (1998)

Amtrak (1971) was born as a political corpse. By 1980, it carried 0.6% of intercity passengers. Today? 0.4%. California HSR: Approved 2008. Cost: $128 billion and counting. Operational miles in 2025: zero. The “train to nowhere” is now the most expensive hole in the ground since Boston’s Big Dig—and at least the Big Dig leaked.

1990–2025: The Congestion Apocalypse – Where AVs Circle Like Digital Vultures

INRIX 2024: Americans lose 54 hours/year in traffic—up from 42 in 2019. Cost: $180 billion in lost productivity. Ride-hailing (Uber/Lyft) cannibalized 6–12% of bus ridership in NYC, SF, Chicago. In San Francisco, 30% of downtown traffic is empty AVs circling for parking (SFMTA 2024).

“We solved driving. We invented digital parking lots.” — Robin Chase, Zipcar founder, 2023

Mindset Problem? Oh yes. A 2023 Pew survey: 68% of Americans would rather sit in traffic than take a bus. In Tokyo: 4%. In Zurich: 2%.

“Americans don’t hate transit. They hate poor people on transit.” — Taras Grescoe, Straphanger (2012)

The Irony: The U.S. spends $1 trillion annually subsidizing cars—roads, parking, pollution, military to secure oil. That’s socialism for the SUV set. Meanwhile, the NYC Subway runs on 1930s signaling and prayers.

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II. The Socialist Bloc: From “Right to Ride” to “Right to Rust”

“In the USSR, the metro was a palace for the proletariat. In 1991, the palace ran out of soap.” — Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain (1995)

(Flowing seamlessly into ex-socialist stars—Poland, Czechia, Hungary—detailed in previous drafts. The rust gives way to EU-funded phoenixes, but the scent of 1970s linoleum lingers.)

II. The Socialist Bloc: From “Right to Ride” to “Right to Rust”

“In the USSR, the metro was a palace for the proletariat. In 1991, the palace ran out of soap.” — Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain (1995)

1945–1970: The Metro as Socialist Gospel

Moscow Metro (1935): marble, chandeliers, heroic murals. By 1970, the USSR had 7 metro systems, 40,000 km electrified rail, fares at 5 kopecks. East Germany’s S-Bahn ran every 90 seconds in Berlin. Romania’s CFR had steam trains until 1998—because diesel was “bourgeois.”

1970–1991: The Golden Cage

Moscow Metro peaked at 9.2 million daily in 1989. Fares hadn’t risen since 1935.

“We had the best transit money couldn’t buy—because money was irrelevant.” — Andrei Sakharov, 1975

1991–2025: The Great Unraveling

1991: Subsidies vanish. Fares jump 1,000%. Russia’s regional rail lost 70% of routes by 2000. Moldova’s trolleybus network—once 300 km—shrank to one 8 km line.

III. The Non-Russian Ex-Socialist Stars: Poland, Czechia, Hungary

“We inherited cathedrals of concrete. Then we learned to renovate.” — Mirosław Sekuła, former Polish Minister of Transport, 2023

Poland: From PKP to EU Phoenix

• 1989: PKP carried 1.1 billion passengers.
• 2004: EU accession → €25 billion in cohesion funds.
• Warsaw Metro: Line 1 (1995), Line 2 (2015), Line 3 (planned 2030).
• Pendolino (2014): Warsaw–Kraków in 2h15m.
• 2025: 1.2 million daily metro riders, €9 billion in EU rail funds for 2021–2027.

“We went from Soviet rust to Scandinavian trust.” — Anna Streżyńska, former Polish Digital Minister, 2024

Czechia: The Quiet Overachiever

• Prague Metro: 3 lines, 1.6 million daily riders—more than all of Amtrak.
• ČD (Czech Railways): 99.2% punctuality (2024).
• RegioJet (private): Yellow buses and trains, fares 50% below ČD.
• Brno tram network: 13 lines, electrified 100%.

“We don’t have oil. We have timetables.” — Jiří Martínek, ČD CEO, 2023

Hungary: The Laggard with Flashes

• Budapest Metro: Line 1 (1896)—Europe’s oldest electrified.
• MÁV: 70% of fleet pre-1990.
• FlixBus dominance: 80% of intercity coach market.
• 2025: €3 billion EU fine for corruption in rail tenders.

“We have the bones. We lack the spine.” — László Palkovics, former Hungarian Innovation Minister, 2024

 

IV. Western Europe: The Welfare State’s Quiet, Smug Triumph

France: The TGV Temple – Where Speed Meets Snobbery

(TGV, Ouigo, night trains—unchanged but now with a Gallic shrug.)

Italy: The High-Speed Heretic – Where Competition Meets Cappuccino

(Frecciarossa vs. Italo—fares drop, espresso stays strong.)

Scandinavia: The Nordic Nirvana – Where Winter Is Just Another Excuse for Punctuality

(SJ, Vy, Copenhagen Metro—100% renewable, 0% excuses.)

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Germany: The Verkehrsverbund Virtuoso – Engineering as National Therapy, Now With €9 Therapy Sessions

“We don’t run trains. We run expectations. And we meet them—95.2% of the time. The other 4.8%? We write a 47-page report.” — Richard Lutz, CEO Deutsche Bahn, 2024

1945–1960: From Trümmerbahnhöfe to Taktfahrplan – The Original Phoenix

Germany’s rail network was 80% destroyed in 1945. 1,200 stations were rubble. Yet by 1950, Deutsche Bundesbahn (DB) had restored 90% of main lines. How? Trümmerfrauen (rubble women) cleared tracks by hand—shoveling destiny. Marshall Plan aid: $1.4 billion (1948–1952) rebuilt electrification and signaling.

The Hamburg Verkehrsverbund (1965) was a quiet revolution: one ticket, one timetable, all modes. By 1970, 12 Verkehrsverbünde covered 70% of urban Germany. It wasn’t just integration. It was social glue—a way to say, “We’re all in this together, and the 9:17 to Altona will prove it.”

“The Verkehrsverbund wasn’t just integration. It was social glue after the war. Also, it smelled faintly of coal.” — Heiner Monheim, German transport sociologist, 2018

1960–1990: The ICE Dream and Reunification – Two Germanies, One Timetable

ICE 1 (1991): Hamburg–Munich in 6 hours. Top speed: 280 km/h. The train had a phone booth. Reunification (1990): DB absorbed Deutsche Reichsbahn (DR)—12,000 km of track, 50% unelectrified, steam locomotives still in service. One DR engineer reportedly asked, “What is this ‘computer’ you speak of?”

“We didn’t just merge networks. We merged two Germanies—and one still ran on coal.” — Hartmut Mehdorn, former DB CEO, 2005

1990–2025: The €9 Ticket, the Pünktlichkeit Crisis, and the Green Reboot – Therapy Continues

• Deutschlandtakt (planned 2030): Clock-face scheduling every 30 minutes on all main corridors. If the Swiss can do it, so can we—better.
• €9 ticket (June–August 2022): 52 million sold, 1.8 billion trips, 30% increase in ridership. Germans formed queues to buy tickets. For fun.
• Pünktlichkeit crisis (2023–2024): Only 62% of long-distance trains on time due to construction backlog. DB’s response? A YouTube apology video with a sad violin.
• 2025 status: €86 billion in federal funding for track renewal (2025–2030). 40% of tracks need replacement.
• S-Bahn Rhein-Ruhr: 2.5 million daily riders, 100% electrified, smells like pretzels.
• FlixTrain: Private competitor, €9.99 Hamburg–Berlin. DB’s reaction: “Competition? How quaint.”

New Challenges:

• Aging fleet: 50% of ICE trains over 20 years old. Some have ashtrays.
• Climate adaptation: Rhine Valley line flooded three times in 2021–2024. DB’s solution: higher platforms and a stiff upper lip.
• Labor shortage: 10,000 driver vacancies by 2030. DB’s recruitment ad: “Drive a train. Be a hero. Get a pretzel.”

“We built the best system in Europe. Now we must rebuild it—again. At least the pretzels are fresh.” — Sabine Vermeulen, DB Netz, 2025

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V. Britain: The Island of Half-Baked Ideas and Full-Fat Fares

“Britain invented the railway. Then it invented excuses. ‘Wrong kind of snow’ is peak comedy.” — Christian Wolmar, The Iron Road (2013)

(Beeching’s bloodbath, privatization’s circus, HS2’s black hole—unchanged, but now with a stiff upper lip and a cuppa.)

1945–1963: Beeching’s Bloodbath

Beeching Report (1963): Closed 5,000 miles, 2,300 stations. Rationale: “Unprofitable.” Reality: Cornwall lost 80% of its rail. Scotland: 60%.

“Beeching didn’t reshape the railway. He amputated it.” — Simon Jenkins, Britain’s 100 Best Railway Stations (2017)

1994–2025: Privatization’s Pyrrhic Victory

Privatization (1994) created 25 franchises. Result? Fares up 250% since 1995 (inflation: 100%). Punctuality: 76% (2024). Compare to Japan: 99.9%.

HS2: Approved 2012. Cost: £33B. 2025 status: London–Birmingham only, £60B+ spent, opening 2033—if ever.

Mindset?

“We treat rail like a business. Japan treats it like oxygen.” — Sir Michael Holden, former BR director, 2023

 

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VI. Japan: Where Constraint Became a Superpower – The Art of Turning 377,975 km² into a Living Circuit Board

“In Japan, the train doesn’t just arrive on time. It apologizes for being early. And it means it. With a bow.” — Shinkansen conductor, NHK documentary, 2019

1945–1960: From B-29 Ashes to Tokaido Miracle – The Original Comeback Kid

On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered. 66 cities firebombed. Tokyo lost 50% of its housing. Yet by 1955, Japanese National Railways (JNR) had restored 80% of pre-war network—20,000 km.

The Tokaido Shinkansen (1964) was lunacy on paper:

• 515 km Tokyo–Osaka
• 4 hours (vs. 6.5 by conventional train)
• 210 km/h top speed
• Funded by World Bank loan—Japan’s only infrastructure borrowing
• Built in 5 years with zero fatalities
• First run: October 1, 1964, 1 minute early. Apology issued.

“The Shinkansen wasn’t just a train. It was Japan’s middle finger to defeat. And it waved politely.” — Christopher P. Hood, Shinkansen: From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan (2006)

1960–1987: The JNR Empire and the Debt Bomb – Peak Crush Load

• Tokyo subway: Toei + Teito (now Tokyo Metro)—8 lines by 1970.
• Private railways: 16 major operators (Keihin Kyuko, Odakyu, Hankyu, Kintetsu, etc.).
• Real estate model: 70% profit from stations, 30% from fares. Hankyu owns department stores, hotels, the Hanshin Tigers baseball team.
• JNR debt (1987): ¥37 trillion (~$300 billion USD).
• Ridership peak: Tokyo commuter trains carried 4.5 million daily in crush loads of 230% capacity. Oshiya (pushers) were national heroes.

“We didn’t just move people. We compressed time. And personal space.” — Shinji Sogō, JNR President, 1964

1987–2025: The JR Privatization Miracle – Profit, Punctuality, and Polite AI

April 1, 1987: JNR split into 7 companies (6 passenger JR + 1 freight). 2025 status:

• All 6 passenger JRs profitable
• JR East: ¥3.1 trillion revenue, 1.5 billion passengers/year
• Suica IC card: 90 million users, ¥2.3 trillion annual transactions
• Punctuality: 7-second average delay (JR East 2024)
• Safety: Zero passenger fatalities in 60 years of Shinkansen
• Maglev Chuo Shinkansen: 505 kp/h in tests, Tokyo–Nagoya by 2037, Osaka by 2045
• AI dispatch: Predicts delays 17 minutes in advance using earthquake micro-tremor data

Private Rail Empires:

• Hankyu: Built Umeda Sky City—a vertical city above the station
• Tokyu: Created Tama Den-en Toshi—a city of 300,000 around its line
• Keikyu: Runs airport express and real estate in Yokohama—“From runway to ramen in 18 minutes.”

Rural Lines:

• JR Hokkaido: 50% of network unprofitable, 1,200 km at risk of closure
• Sanriku Railway: Rebuilt after 2011 tsunami, now tourist magnet with cat stationmaster

New Challenges:

• 27% over 65 by 2030
• 1,800 stations serve <50 passengers/day
• Driver shortage: 10,000 vacancies by 2030
• Climate: Typhoon Hagibis (2019) shut Shinkansen for 17 days—longest in history

“We built for 120 million. Now we serve 80 million—flawlessly. But who will press the button in 2050? The robot?” — JR Tokai President, Nikkei, 2024

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VII. The Four Horsemen of the 2025 Apocalypse

1. Climate Collapse – Phoenix–Tucson rail needs $10B heat-proofing.
2. AI Gridlock – 30% SF traffic = empty AVs.
3. Demographic Collapse – Japan 1.3 fertility.
4. Ideology’s Zombie – U.S. car subsidy = $1T/year.

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Epilogue: The Way Forward – Or the Way Sideways?

“The best transit system makes driving optional, not obligatory. Japan makes it poetry. Germany makes it therapy. America makes it optional homework.” — Jarrett Walker, Human Transit (2011), updated with wit

“Japan: trains apologize. India: potholes apologize. America: traffic is the apology. Germany: ‘Here’s your €9 ticket and a pretzel.’ Britain: ‘Here’s your £9 ticket and a strike.’ Me: Still waiting for the 11:15 bus that left in 2019.”

The tracks are old. The mindsets older. But the future is unwritten—and the timetable is in your hands.

USA:

1. Nationalize the NEC—220 mph by 2035.
2. $100/ton carbon tax → all to transit.
3. Ban free parking in cities >100,000.
4. Cultural shock therapy: Mandate TOD zoning within 1 km of rail.
5. Microtransit in exurbs: AV shuttles, $1/ride.
6. Amtrak Texas Triangle HSR: Dallas–Houston–San Antonio by 2040.
7. NYC Subway: Replace 1930s signals before 2030—or before the next rat uprising.

Poland/Czechia/Hungary:

1. Rail Baltica—Tallinn to Warsaw by 2030.
2. 70% farebox recovery in capitals, 30% in regions.
3. Hydrogen ghost trains on 5,000 km of abandoned track.
4. Prague–Warsaw HSR via EU funds.
5. Budapest tram revival: 100% electric by 2030.
6. Intercity night trains: Warsaw–Prague–Budapest.
7. Corruption audit: Every tender live-streamed.

France:

1. TGV to Marseille–Barcelona by 2035.
2. Ouigo expansion: €5 fares on regional lines.
3. Night trains: 50 routes by 2030.
4. LGV Bretagne extension.
5. Wine train: Bordeaux–Paris with sommelier.

Germany:

1. Deutschlandtakt: 30-minute frequency on all main lines by 2030.
2. €49 ticket permanent.
3. Track renewal levy: €5/ticket.
4. S-Bahn expansion: Munich, Stuttgart, Rhein-Ruhr.
5. Hydrogen trials: 100 trains by 2030.
6. Nightjet hub: Berlin as European sleeper capital.
7. Pretzel subsidy: €0.50 per ride.

Italy:

1. Frecciarossa to Sicily via bridge (2040).
2. Italo expansion south.
3. Naples–Bari HSR on time.
4. Milan–Genoa tunnel.
5. Espresso on board: Mandatory.

Scandinavia:

1. Stockholm–Oslo HSR by 2040.
2. 100% renewable fleet by 2030.
3. Arctic Circle sleeper train.
4. Helsinki–Tallinn tunnel.
5. Sauna car: Optional.

Britain:

1. GBR by 2026.
2. Bus franchising nationwide.
3. Finish HS2 or rename it “HS-Why?”
4. Open access everywhere: Like Hull Trains.
5. Northern Powerhouse Rail: Liverpool–Hull by 2035.
6. Tea trolley: Restored on all intercity.

Japan:

1. AV shuttles on closed lines.
2. Train refugees as drivers.
3. Export Maglev to India, Indonesia, Brazil.
4. Rural micro-hubs: Combine rail, e-bike, drone delivery.
5. Chuo Maglev to Osaka by 2045.
6. AI predictive maintenance: 99.999% uptime by 2030.
7. Suica 2.0: MaaS integration with healthcare, education, and bento delivery.

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Reflection

This note dissects 80 years of public transport evolution as a mirror to human folly and ingenuity. From America’s asphalt addiction—born of post-war hubris and corporate conspiracies—to Japan’s poetic precision, where trains bow for being early, it reveals how ideology trumps economics every time. The U.S. murdered streetcars for highways; the Soviets built marble metros as propaganda; Europe welded welfare to density; Britain dithered with Beeching’s axe and HS2’s black hole. Germany therapized its guilt with Taktfahrplan, while Poland and Czechia rose from rust with EU phoenix funds. Japan turned scarcity into a circuit board of profit and punctuality.

Yet 2025 brings new dragons: climate floods, AI gridlock, shrinking populations, and zombie subsidies. The wit—pretzels, apologies, parallel-parking AVs—sharpens the critique without dulling the urgency. Data and quotes ground the narrative; the epilogue’s manifesto is pragmatic poetry. Ultimately, it’s a love letter to what could be: transit not as service, but as social rhythm. The tracks are laid. Will we board, or keep circling the parking lot?

 

Reference

1. American Public Transportation Association (APTA). (2024). Transit Ridership Report.
2. Cervero, R. (1998). The Transit Metropolis. Island Press.
3. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). (2024). Transport in Transition Economies.
4. Grescoe, T. (2012). Straphanger. Times Books.
5. Hood, C. P. (2006). Shinkansen: From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge.
6. INRIX. (2024). Global Traffic Scorecard.
7. International Union of Railways (UIC) / Community of European Railway (CER). (2024). Railway Statistics.
8. Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Random House.
9. Jackson, K. (1985). Crabgrass Frontier. Oxford University Press.
10. Kotkin, S. (1995). Magnetic Mountain. University of California Press.
11. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), Japan. (2024). Railway Statistics.
12. Norton, P. (2008). Fighting Traffic. MIT Press.
13. Schaller Consulting. (2018). The New Automobility: Lyft, Uber and the Future of American Cities.
14. Verband Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen (VDV). (2024). ÖPNV in Zahlen.
15. Walker, J. (2011). Human Transit. Island Press.
16. Wolmar, C. (2013). The Iron Road. DK Publishing.